1) An anxiety disorder is: 2) Which of the following are common aspects of co-morbidity in anxiety disorders? 3) Specific phobias are defined as: 4) In phobia individuals acquire a strong set of phobic beliefs which: 5) Psychodynamic theory as developed by Freud saw phobias as: 6) In the famous “Little Albert” study by Watson & Rayner, they attempted to condition in him, a fear of his pet white rat. This was done by: 7) According to conditioning theory Incubation is a phenomenon that should lead to: 8) Which of the following is a predominant evolutionary theory of phobias?: 9) Recent evidence suggests that at least some phobias are closely associated with the emotion of: 10) The disease-avoidance model of animal phobias (Matchett & Davey, 1991) is supported by which of the following? 11) One important issue in therapy for specific phobias is to address: 12) Some of the defining features of Social phobia are described in DSM-IV-TR as: 13) It is considered that successful CBT treatments of social phobia include elements of the following: 14) Which of the following is a Drug treatment for social phobia: 15) Which of the following physical symptoms are associated with Panic attacks: 16) A common feature of panic attacks is Hyperventilation and it is due to: 17) Sensitivity to increases in CO2 have been suggested as a risk factor for panic disorder (Papp, Klein & Gorman, 1993), and have given rise to what are known as “suffocation alarm theories” of panic disorder where increased CO2 intake may: 18) In panic disorder anxiety sensitivity refers to: 19) Clark's (1986, 1988) theory of Catastrophic Misinterpretation of Bodily Sensations suggests that individuals: 20) Generalised Anxiety Disorder (GAD) is a pervasive condition in which the sufferer experiences: 21) Pathological and chronic worrying is the cardinal diagnostic feature of GAD, but it may also be accompanied by physical symptoms such as: 22) Individuals suffering with Generalised Anxiety Disorder, have a series of information processing biases which appear to maintain hyper-vigilance for threat, create further sources for worry, and maintain anxiety. Which of the following are examples of such biases? 23) Stimulus Control Treatment for Generalised Anxiety Disorder involves: 24) Treatment for GAD involves Cognitive restructuring. This involves : 25) In Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) compulsions are generally thought to be which of the following: 26) In OCD one of the most important dysfunctional beliefs has been defined as inflated responsibility. This is: 27) Mood is considered to have a role in perseverative psychopathologies such as OCD. One such account is the Mood as input hypothesis, which suggests that OCD suffers persevere with their compulsive activities because: 28) The most common, and perhaps the most successful, treatment for OCD is exposure and ritual prevention. One such treatment is imaginal exposure. For example, for someone with compulsive washing, this involves: 29) Sometimes as a last resort Neurosurgery has become an intervention in OCD. The most common procedure is: 30) Which of the following is considered to be a symptom of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD):
Generalized anxiety disorder, or GAD as it is more commonly referred to, is an anxiety disorder characterized by excessive worry or apprehension displayed across a variety of everyday situations or activities. Patients with GAD worry about things that most people will from time to time worry about, such as health, finances, work difficulties, or family problems. However, while most people are able to control their anxiety regarding these issues, those with GAD are unable to stop focusing on these everyday issues, often fearing the worst outcome for every situation for which they’re experiencing anxiety. Quite often the worry of GAD patients is out of proportion to the actual likelihood of their feared outcome. For instance, someone might be unable to stop worrying that they are not performing well at work and will soon be fired from their position, despite a complete lack of evidence that their job performance has been poor. GAD patients describe their anxiety as being constantly present in their daily lives. In addition to the uncontrollable worry, GAD patients also experience a variety of arousal symptoms, such as restlessness, difficulty concentrating, irritability, and being easily fatigued. Sometimes, GAD patients experience physiological symptoms as a result of their constant state of apprehension. These can include nausea, headaches, and dry mouth among others. Generalized anxiety disorder causes its sufferers great distress and trouble functioning in several different areas, such as at work, at home with family, or when out socially with friends. Common SymptomsAccording to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), the following criteria must be met in order for a person to receive a diagnosis of generalized anxiety disorder.
GAD in ChildrenFor children suffering from GAD, the worries tend to be focused on either competence or quality of performance at school or in sporting events. Occasionally, children may focus their anxiety on the occurrence of catastrophic events such as earthquakes or nuclear war. Children with GAD may be appear to be perfectionists and might require excessive reassurance or approval from adults regarding the quality of their work. Back to Top Onset and CourseWhile generalized anxiety disorder can occur at any age, many individuals with GAD report feeling anxious all their lives. While no there is no known specific cause for the disorder, research suggests that there may be a genetic component involved in GAD, with individuals having family members with the disorder more likely to develop GAD than those in the general population. While no specific causing gene has been located, research now indicates that biology, environment, and life experience may all play a role in the development and course of GAD. While the median age of onset is 30 years, a very broad range exists for the spread of age at time of onset. Patients reporting a later onset of their GAD typically will say their symptoms developed in response to a significant stressful event in their lives. Once an individual develops GAD, the course of the disorder is most often chronic. The severity of symptoms may fluctuate and worsen during times of stress. Epidemiological InformationThe 12-month prevalence of generalized anxiety disorder is 0.9% among adolescents and 2.9% among adults in the general community of the U.S. The 12-month prevalence for the disorder in other countries ranges from 0.4% to 3.6%. Individuals of European descent tend to experience GAD more frequently than do individuals of non-European descent (i.e. Asian, African, Native American and Pacific Islander). Furthermore, individuals from developed countries are more likely than individuals from developing countries to report that they have experienced symptoms that meet criteria for GAD in their lifetime. Back to Top Co-Occurrence with Other DisordersGeneralized anxiety disorder often may be accompanied by other anxiety or unipolar depressive disorders, such as major depression, dysthymia, panic disorder, or social anxiety disorder. Recent research on co-occurring anxiety and depression has shown that individuals suffering from both disorders are more likely to have greater symptom severity and a lower response to treatment than those presenting with only one disorder. Also, patients with dual diagnoses show greater impairment in social function and quality of life. Research has also demonstrated an overlap in genetic and environmental risk factors between these disorders; however, independent pathways are also possible. Co-occurrence with substance use, conduct, and psychotic disorders is less common. In addition to occurring alongside other mental disorders, patients with GAD may also suffer from other physical conditions as a result of their constant anxiety, such as irritable bowel syndrome. Doctors seeing patients with chronic physical complaints who also report continuous feelings of worry and anxiety may be likely to recognize this as GAD and make an appropriate mental health referral.
A psychological disorder is a condition characterized by abnormal thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Psychopathology is the study of psychological disorders, including their symptoms, etiology (i.e., their causes), and treatment. The term psychopathology can also refer to the manifestation of a psychological disorder. Although consensus can be difficult, it is extremely important for mental health professionals to agree on what kinds of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are truly abnormal.
In the harmful dysfunction definition of psychological disorders, dysfunction involves ________.
Patterns of inner experience and behavior are thought to reflect the presence of a psychological disorder if they ________.
Discuss why thoughts, feelings, or behaviors that are merely atypical or unusual would not necessarily signify the presence of a psychological disorder. Provide an example.
Identify a behavior that is considered unusual or abnormal in your own culture; however, it would be considered normal and expected in another culture.
Just because something is atypical or unusual does not mean it is disordered. A person may experience atypical inner experiences or exhibit unusual behaviors, but she would not be considered disordered if they are not distressing, disturbing, or reflecting a dysfunction. For example, a classmate might stay up all night studying before exams; although atypical, this behavior is unlikely to possess any of the other criteria for psychological disorder mentioned previously.
A first step in the study of psychological disorders is carefully and systematically discerning significant signs and symptoms. How do mental health professionals ascertain whether or not a person’s inner states and behaviors truly represent a psychological disorder? Arriving at a proper diagnosis—that is, appropriately identifying and labeling a set of defined symptoms—is absolutely crucial.
The letters in the abbreviation DSM-5 stand for ________.
A study based on over \(9,000\) U. S. residents found that the most prevalent disorder was ________.
Describe the DSM-5. What is it, what kind of information does it contain, and why is it important to the study and treatment of psychological disorders?
The International Classification of Diseases (ICD) and the DSM differ in various ways. What are some of the differences in these two classification systems?
The DSM-5 is the classification system of psychological disorders preferred by most U.S. mental health professionals, and it is published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). It consists of broad categories of disorders and specific disorders that fall within each category. Each disorder has an explicit description of its symptoms, as well as information concerning prevalence, risk factors, and comorbidity. The DSM-5 provides a common language that enables mental health professionals to communicate effectively about sets of symptoms.
The ICD is used primarily for making clinical diagnoses and more broadly for examining the general health of populations and monitoring the international prevalence of diseases and other health problems. While the DSM is also used for diagnostic purposes, it is also highly valued as a research tool. For example, much of the data regarding the etiology and treatment of psychological disorders are based on diagnostic criteria set forth in the DSM.
Scientists and mental health professionals may adopt different perspectives in attempting to understand or explain the underlying mechanisms that contribute to the development of a psychological disorder. The perspective used in explaining a psychological disorder is extremely important, in that it will consist of explicit assumptions regarding how best to study the disorder, its etiology, and what kinds of therapies or treatments are most beneficial.
The diathesis-stress model presumes that psychopathology results from ________.
Dr. Anastasia believes that major depressive disorder is caused by an over-secretion of cortisol. His view on the cause of major depressive disorder reflects a ________ perspective.
Why is the perspective one uses in explaining a psychological disorder important?
Even today, some believe that certain occurrences have supernatural causes. Think of an event, recent or historical, for which others have provided supernatural explanation.
The perspective one uses in explaining a psychological disorder consists of assumptions that will guide how to best study and understand the nature of a disorder, including its causes, and how to most effectively treat the disorder.
Anxiety disorders are characterized by excessive and persistent fear and anxiety, and by related disturbances in behavior (APA, 2013). Although anxiety is universally experienced, anxiety disorders cause considerable distress. As a group, anxiety disorders are common: approximately \(25\%-30\%\) of the U.S. population meets the criteria for at least one anxiety disorder during their lifetime. Also, these disorders appear to be much more common in women than they are in men.
In which of the following anxiety disorders is the person in a continuous state of excessive, pointless worry and apprehension?
Which of the following would constitute a safety behavior?
Describe how cognitive theories of the etiology of anxiety disorders differ from learning theories.
Learning theories suggest that some anxiety disorders, especially specific phobia, can develop through a number of learning mechanisms. These mechanisms can include classical and operant conditioning, modeling, or vicarious learning. Cognitive theories, in contrast, assume that some anxiety disorder, especially panic disorder, develop through cognitive misinterpretations of anxiety and other symptoms.
Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders are a group of overlapping disorders that generally involve intrusive, unpleasant thoughts and repetitive behaviors. Many of us experience unwanted thoughts from time to time and many of us engage in repetitive behaviors on occasion. However, obsessive-compulsive and related disorders elevate the unwanted thoughts and repetitive behaviors to a status so intense that these cognitions and activities disrupt daily life.
Which of the following best illustrates a compulsion?
Research indicates that the symptoms of OCD ________.
Discuss the common elements of each of the three disorders covered in this section: obsessive-compulsive disorder, body dysmorphic disorder, and hoarding disorder.
Each of the three disorders is characterized by repetitive thoughts and urges, as well as an uncontrollable need to engage in repetitive behavior and mental acts. For example, repetitive thoughts include concerns over contamination (OCD), imaged physical defects (body dysmorphic disorder), and over discarding one’s possessions (hoarding disorder). An uncontrollable need to engage in repetitive behaviors and mental acts include persistent hand-washing (OCD), constantly looking in the mirror (body dysmorphic disorder), and engaging in efforts to acquire new possessions (hoarding disorder).
Extremely stressful or traumatic events, such as combat, natural disasters, and terrorist attacks, place the people who experience them at an increased risk for developing psychological disorders such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Throughout much of the \(20^{th}\) century, this disorder was called shell shock and combat neurosis because its symptoms were observed in soldiers who had engaged in wartime combat.
Symptoms of PTSD include all of the following except ________.
Which of the following elevates the risk for developing PTSD?
List some of the risk factors associated with the development of PTSD following a traumatic event.
Risk factors associated with PTSD include gender (female), low socioeconomic status, low intelligence, personal and family history of mental illness, and childhood abuse or trauma. Personality factors, including neuroticism and somatization, may also serve as risk factors. Also, certain versions of a gene that regulates serotonin may constitute a diathesis.
All of us experience fluctuations in our moods and emotional states, and often these fluctuations are caused by events in our lives. We become elated if our favorite team wins the World Series and dejected if a romantic relationship ends or if we lose our job. At times, we feel fantastic or miserable for no clear reason. People with mood disorders also experience mood fluctuations, but their fluctuations are extreme, distort their outlook on life, and impair their ability to function.
Common symptoms of major depressive disorder include all of the following except ________.
Suicide rates are ________ among men than among women, and they are ________ during the winter holiday season than during the spring months.
Describe several of the factors associated with suicide.
Think of someone you know who seems to have a tendency to make negative, self-defeating explanations for negative life events. How might this tendency lead to future problems? What steps do you think could be taken to change this thinking style?
The risk of suicide is high among people with mental health problems, including mood disorders and substance abuse problems. The risk is also high among those who have made a prior suicide attempt and who have lethal means to commit suicide. Rates of suicide are higher among men and during the springtime, and they are higher in the mountain states of the west than in other regions of the United States. Research has also shown that suicides can have a “contagious” effect on people, and that it is associated with serotonin dysfunction.
Schizophrenia is a devastating psychological disorder that is characterized by major disturbances in thought, perception, emotion, and behavior. About \(1\%\) of the population experiences schizophrenia in their lifetime, and usually the disorder is first diagnosed during early adulthood (early to mid-\(20s\)). Most people with schizophrenia experience significant difficulties in many day-to-day activities, such as holding a job, paying bills, caring for oneself and maintaining relationships with others.
Clifford falsely believes that the police have planted secret cameras in his home to monitor his every movement. Clifford’s belief is an example of ________.
A study of adoptees whose biological mothers had schizophrenia found that the adoptees were most likely to develop schizophrenia ________.
Why is research following individuals who show prodromal symptoms of schizophrenia so important?
This kind of research is important because it enables investigators to identify potential warning signs that predict the onset of schizophrenia. Once such factors are identified, interventions may be developed.
Dissociative disorders are characterized by an individual becoming split off, or dissociated, from her core sense of self. Memory and identity become disturbed; these disturbances have a psychological rather than physical cause. Dissociative disorders listed in the DSM-5 include dissociative amnesia, depersonalization/derealization disorder, and dissociative identity disorder.
Dissociative amnesia involves ________.
Dissociative identity disorder mainly involves ________.
The prevalence of most psychological disorders has increased since the 1980s. However, as discussed in this section, scientific publications regarding dissociative amnesia peaked in the mid-1990s but then declined steeply through 2003. In addition, no fictional or nonfictional description of individuals showing dissociative amnesia following a trauma exists prior to 1800. How would you explain this phenomenon?
Try to find an example (via a search engine) of a past instance in which a person committed a horrible crime, was apprehended, and later claimed to have dissociative identity disorder during the trial. What was the outcome? Was the person revealed to be faking? If so, how was this determined?
Several explanations are possible. One explanation is that perhaps there is little scientific interest in this phenomenon, maybe because it has yet to gain consistent scientific acceptance. Another possible explanation is that perhaps the dissociative amnesia was fashionable at the time publications dealing with this topic peaked (1990s); perhaps since that time it has become less fashionable.
The term personality refers loosely to one’s stable, consistent, and distinctive way of thinking about, feeling, acting, and relating to the world. People with personality disorders exhibit a personality style that differs markedly from the expectations of their culture, is pervasive and inflexible, begins in adolescence or early adulthood, and causes distress or impairment (APA, 2013).
People with borderline personality disorder often ________.
Antisocial personality disorder is associated with ________.
Imagine that a child has a genetic vulnerability to antisocial personality disorder. How might this child’s environment shape the likelihood of developing this personality disorder?
The environment is likely to be very instrumental in determining the likelihood of developing antisocial personality disorder. Research has shown that adverse family environments (e.g., divorce or marital problems, legal problems, and drug use) are connected to antisocial personality disorder, particularly if one is genetically vulnerable. Beyond one’s family environment, peer group delinquency and community variables (e.g., economic deprivation, community disorganization, drug use, and the presence of adult antisocial models) heighten the risk of violent behavior.
Most of the disorders we have discussed so far are typically diagnosed in adulthood, although they can and sometimes do occur during childhood. However, there are a group of conditions that, when present, are diagnosed early in childhood, often before the time a child enters school. These conditions are listed in the DSM-5 as neurodevelopmental disorders, and they involve developmental problems in personal, social, academic, and intellectual functioning (APA, 2013).
Which of the following is not a primary characteristic of ADHD?
One of the primary characteristics of autism spectrum disorder is ________.
Compare the factors that are important in the development of ADHD with those that are important in the development of autism spectrum disorder.
Discuss the characteristics of autism spectrum disorder with a few of your friends or members of your family (choose friends or family members who know little about the disorder) and ask them if they think the cause is due to bad parenting or vaccinations. If they indicate that they believe either to be true, why do you think this might be the case? What would be your response?
Genetic factors appear to play a major role in the development of both ADHD and autism spectrum disorder: studies show higher rates of concordance among identical twins than among fraternal twins for both disorders. In ADHD, genes that regulate dopamine have been implicated; in autism spectrum disorder, de novo genetic mutations appear to be important. Imaging studies suggest that abnormalities in the frontal lobes may be important in the development of ADHD. Parenting practices are not connected to the development of either disorder. Although environmental toxins are generally unimportant in the development of ADHD, exposure to cigarette smoke during the prenatal period has been linked to the development of the disorder; a number of environmental factors are thought to be associated with an increased risk for autism spectrum disorder: exposure to pollutants, an urban versus rural residence, and vitamin D deficiency. Although some people continue to believe that MMR vaccinations can cause autism spectrum disorder (due to an influential paper that was later retracted), there is no scientific evidence that supports this assertion. Contributor |
What disorder is characterized by excessive persistent fear and apprehension?
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