The Russian Revolution of 1917 was one of the most explosive political events of the twentieth century. The violent revolution marked the end of the Romanov dynasty and centuries of Russian Imperial rule. During the Russian Revolution, the Bolsheviks, led by leftist revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, seized power and destroyed the tradition of czarist rule. The Bolsheviks would later become the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Show WATCH: Vladimir Lenin: Voice of Revolution on HISTORY Vault When Was the Russian Revolution?In 1917, two revolutions swept through Russia, ending centuries of imperial rule and setting into motion political and social changes that would lead to the eventual formation of the Soviet Union. However, while the two revolutionary events took place within a few short months of 1917, social unrest in Russia had been brewing for many years prior to the events of that year. In the early 1900s, Russia was one of the most impoverished countries in Europe with an enormous peasantry and a growing minority of poor industrial workers. Much of Western Europe viewed Russia as an undeveloped, backwards society. The Russian Empire practiced serfdom—a form of feudalism in which landless peasants were forced to serve the land-owning nobility—well into the nineteenth century. In contrast, the practice had disappeared in most of Western Europe by the end of the Middle Ages. In 1861, the Russian Empire finally abolished serfdom. The emancipation of serfs would influence the events leading up to the Russian Revolution by giving peasants more freedom to organize. What Caused the Russian Revolution?The Industrial Revolution gained a foothold in Russia much later than in Western Europe and the United States. When it finally did, around the turn of the 20th century, it brought with it immense social and political changes. Between 1890 and 1910, for example, the population of major Russian cities such as St. Petersburg and Moscow nearly doubled, resulting in overcrowding and destitute living conditions for a new class of Russian industrial workers. A population boom at the end of the 19th century, a harsh growing season due to Russia’s northern climate, and a series of costly wars—starting with the Crimean War—created frequent food shortages across the vast empire. Moreover, a famine in 1891-1892 is estimated to have killed up to 400,000 Russians. The devastating Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 further weakened Russia and the position of ruler Czar Nicholas II. Russia suffered heavy losses of soldiers, ships, money and international prestige in the war, which it ultimately lost. Many educated Russians, looking at social progress and scientific advancement in Western Europe and North America, saw how growth in Russia was being hampered by the monarchical rule of the czars and the czar’s supporters in the aristocratic class. Russian Revolution of 1905Soon, large protests by Russian workers against the monarchy led to the Bloody Sunday massacre of 1905. Hundreds of unarmed protesters were killed or wounded by the czar’s troops. The Bloody Sunday massacre sparked the Russian Revolution of 1905, during which angry workers responded with a series of crippling strikes throughout the country. Farm laborers and soldiers joined the cause, leading to the creation of worker-dominated councils called “soviets.” In one famous incident, the crew of the battleship Potemkin staged a successful mutiny against their overbearing officers. Historians would later refer to the 1905 Russian Revolution as ‘the Great Dress Rehearsal,” as it set the stage for the upheavals to come. Nicholas II and World War IAfter the bloodshed of 1905 and Russia’s humiliating loss in the Russo-Japanese War, Nicholas II promised greater freedom of speech and the formation of a representative assembly, or Duma, to work toward reform. Russia entered into World War I in August 1914 in support of the Serbs and their French and British allies. Their involvement in the war would soon prove disastrous for the Russian Empire. Militarily, imperial Russia was no match for industrialized Germany, and Russian casualties were greater than those sustained by any nation in any previous war. Food and fuel shortages plagued Russia as inflation mounted. The already weak economy was hopelessly disrupted by the costly war effort. Czar Nicholas left the Russian capital of Petrograd (St. Petersburg) in 1915 to take command of the Russian Army front. (The Russians had renamed the imperial city in 1914, because “St. Petersburg” sounded too German.) Rasputin and the CzarinaIn her husband’s absence, Czarina Alexandra—an unpopular woman of German ancestry—began firing elected officials. During this time, her controversial advisor, Grigory Rasputin, increased his influence over Russian politics and the royal Romanov family. Russian nobles eager to end Rasputin’s influence murdered him on December 30, 1916. By then, most Russians had lost faith in the failed leadership of the czar. Government corruption was rampant, the Russian economy remained backward and Nicholas repeatedly dissolved the Duma, the toothless Russian parliament established after the 1905 revolution, when it opposed his will. Moderates soon joined Russian radical elements in calling for an overthrow of the hapless czar. February RevolutionThe February Revolution (known as such because of Russia’s use of the Julian calendar until February 1918) began on March 8, 1917 (February 23 on the Julian calendar). Demonstrators clamoring for bread took to the streets of Petrograd. Supported by huge crowds of striking industrial workers, the protesters clashed with police but refused to leave the streets. On March 11, the troops of the Petrograd army garrison were called out to quell the uprising. In some encounters, the regiments opened fire, killing demonstrators, but the protesters kept to the streets and the troops began to waver. The Duma formed a provisional government on March 12. A few days later, Czar Nicholas abdicated the throne, ending centuries of Russian Romanov rule. Alexander KerenskyThe leaders of the provisional government, including young Russian lawyer Alexander Kerensky, established a liberal program of rights such as freedom of speech, equality before the law, and the right of unions to organize and strike. They opposed violent social revolution. As minister of war, Kerensky continued the Russian war effort, even though Russian involvement in World War I was enormously unpopular. This further exacerbated Russia’s food supply problems. Unrest continued to grow as peasants looted farms and food riots erupted in the cities. Bolshevik RevolutionOn November 6 and 7, 1917 (or October 24 and 25 on the Julian calendar, which is why the event is often referred to as the October Revolution), leftist revolutionaries led by Bolshevik Party leader Vladimir Lenin launched a nearly bloodless coup d’état against the Duma’s provisional government. The provisional government had been assembled by a group of leaders from Russia’s bourgeois capitalist class. Lenin instead called for a Soviet government that would be ruled directly by councils of soldiers, peasants and workers. The Bolsheviks and their allies occupied government buildings and other strategic locations in Petrograd, and soon formed a new government with Lenin as its head. Lenin became the dictator of the world’s first communist state. READ MORE: Soviet Union Leaders: A Timeline Russian Civil WarCivil War broke out in Russia in late 1917 after the Bolshevik Revolution. The warring factions included the Red and White Armies. The Red Army fought for the Lenin’s Bolshevik government. The White Army represented a large group of loosely allied forces, including monarchists, capitalists and supporters of democratic socialism. On July 16, 1918, the Romanovs were executed by the Bolsheviks. The Russian Civil War ended in 1923 with Lenin’s Red Army claiming victory and establishing the Soviet Union. After many years of violence and political unrest, the Russian Revolution paved the way for the rise of communism as an influential political belief system around the world. It set the stage for the rise of the Soviet Union as a world power that would go head-to-head with the United States during the Cold War. Photo Galleries Ivan IV presided over a rapidly growing Russian empire, and in 1547 became the first ruler to be crowned Czar. Prone to instability, he often quarreled with the noble boyar class and accidentally killed his own son and heir in a violent outburst. Getty Images In the late 16th century, Russia was racked by a succession crisis known as the "Time of Troubles." In 1613, a national assembly elected 16-year-old Mikhail Romanov czar. The Romanovs would rule Russia for the next 300 years. Getty Images Getty Images A grandson of Catherine II, Alexander I became czar after his father's murder in 1801. His initial alliance with Napoleon turned to hatred following the French invasion of Russia, and the czar's early liberal positions eventually gave way to a more autocratic rule. Getty Images After decades of repression, Alexander II's radical reforms and emancipation of Russia's feudal laborers, or serfs, earned him the nickname "the Great Liberator." Despite these efforts, he was assassinated by a left-wing terrorist group called Narodnaya Volya, or "People's Will." Getty Images Witte was credited with the rapid industrialization of Russia in the late 19th century. Following the disastrous 1905 Russo-Japanese War, he convinced Nicholas II to grant limited legislative concessions, including constitutional controls on the monarchy and an elected parliament, or Duma. Buyenlarge/Getty Images As prime minister under Nicholas II, Stoylpin attempted to quell the growing tide of unrest in Russia through a combination of land reforms and crackdowns on radical terrorist groups. The radicals won, assassinating Stolypin in 1911. Getty Images The Siberian "holy man" gained the absolute trust of Nicholas II and his wife due to his ability to "heal" their hemophiliac son, the czarevitch Alexei. Despised by Russian society for his abuse of power and debaucherous lifestyle, he was murdered in December 1916. Getty Images Born Vladimir Ulyanov, Lenin was the founder of the Russian Communist Party, leader of the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution and the architect, builder and first head of the Soviet state. Getty Images Trotsky was a leader of the Russian Revolution of 1917. In the struggle for power following Lenin's death, however, Joseph Stalin emerged as victor, while Trotsky was removed from all positions of power and later exiled until his assassination by a Stalinist agent in 1940. Getty Images Stalin's rapid industrialization, agrarian reforms and series of purges led to the death and imprisonment of millions of Soviet citizens. He successfully led the USSR through World War II and oversaw the communization of Eastern Europe, which would lead to the Cold War. Getty Images Khrushchev's de-Stalinization programs eased travel restrictions, increased production of consumer goods and freed thousands of political prisoners. He pledged "peaceful coexistence" with the West, but clashed with the United States in Berlin and Cuba. Getty Images Brezhnev's defense spending led to parity with the United States but dramatically weakened the Soviet economy. Despite this military buildup, he was committed to diffusing tensions with the West through a policy known as "détente." Getty Images Gorbachev's programs of "perestroika" ("restructuring") and "glasnost" ("openness") introduced profound changes. Within five years, communist governments were swept from power throughout Eastern Europe, bringing an end to the Cold War. Getty Images In 1991, following the fall of the Soviet Union, Yeltsin became the first popularly elected leader in the Russian history, guiding his country through a stormy decade of political and economic retrenching until his resignation in December 1999. Getty Images A former member of the KBG, Vladimir Putin served as Russia's president from 1999 to 2008. He led efforts to strengthen the market economy and end corruption, and cracked down on separatist groups. In 2008, he chose Dmitry Medvedev as his successor and later assumed the post of prime minister. Getty Images SourcesThe Russian Revolutions of 1917. Anna M. Cienciala, University of Kansas. |
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