Why is a cable modem classified as a digital model?

Modems are frequently classified by the maximum amount of data they can send in a given unit of time, usually expressed in bits per second (symbol bit/s, sometimes abbreviated "bps") or rarely in bytes per second (symbol B/s). Modern broadband modem speeds are typically expressed in megabits per second (Mbit/s).

Historically, modems were often classified by their symbol rate, measured in baud. The baud unit denotes symbols per second, or the number of times per second the modem sends a new signal. For example, the ITU V.21 standard used audio frequency-shift keying with two possible frequencies, corresponding to two distinct symbols (or one bit per symbol), to carry 300 bits per second using 300 baud. By contrast, the original ITU V.22 standard, which could transmit and receive four distinct symbols (two bits per symbol), transmitted 1,200 bits by sending 600 symbols per second (600 baud) using phase-shift keying.

Many modems are variable-rate, permitting them to be used over a medium with less than ideal characteristics, such as a telephone line that is of poor quality or is too long. This capability is often adaptive so that a modem can discover the maximum practical transmission rate during the connect phase, or during operation.

Modems grew out of the need to connect teleprinters over ordinary phone lines instead of the more expensive leased lines which had previously been used for current loop–based teleprinters and automated telegraphs. The earliest devices that satisfy the definition of a modem may be the multiplexers used by news wire services in the 1920s.[1]

In 1941, the Allies developed a voice encryption system called SIGSALY which used a vocoder to digitize speech, then encrypted the speech with one-time pad and encoded the digital data as tones using frequency shift keying. This was also a digital modulation technique, making this an early modem.[2]

Commercial modems largely did not become available until the late 1950s, when the rapid development of computer technology created demand for a method of connecting computers together over long distances, resulting in the Bell Company and then other businesses producing an increasing number of computer modems for use over both switched and leased telephone lines.

Later developments would produce modems that operated over cable television lines, power lines, and various radio technologies, as well as modems that achieved much higher speeds over telephone lines.

A dial-up modem transmits computer data over an ordinary switched telephone line that has not been designed for data use. This contrasts with leased line modems, which also operate over lines provided by a telephone company, but ones which are intended for data use and do not impose the same signaling constraints.

The modulated data must fit the frequency constraints of a normal voice audio signal. Early modems, including acoustic coupled modems, relied on the communicating parties or an automatic calling unit to dial and establish a voice connection before switching their modems to line; more modern devices are able to perform the actions needed to connect a call through a telephone exchange, e.g., picking up the line, dialing, understanding signals sent back by phone company equipment (dialtone, ringing, busy signal) recognizing incoming ring signals and answering calls.

Dial-up modems have been made in a wide variety of speeds and capabilities, with many capable of testing the line they are calling over and selecting the most advanced signaling mode that the line can support. Generally speaking, the fastest dialup modems ever available to consumers never exceeded 56 kbit/s and never achieved that speed in both directions.

The dial-up modem was once a widely known technology, since it was mass-marketed to consumers in many countries for dial-up internet access. In the 1990s, tens of millions of people in the United States used dial-up modems for internet access.[3]

Dial-up service has since been largely supplanted by broadband internet,[4] such as DSL, which typically still uses a modem, but of a very different type which may still operate over a normal phone line, but with substantially relaxed constraints.

History

1950s

Mass production of telephone line modems in the United States began as part of the SAGE air-defense system in 1958, connecting terminals at various airbases, radar sites, and command-and-control centers to the SAGE director centers scattered around the United States and Canada.

Shortly afterwards in 1959, the technology in the SAGE modems was made available commercially as the Bell 101, which provided 110 bit/s speeds. Bell called this and several other early modems "datasets".

1960s

Some early modems were based on touch-tone frequencies, such as Bell 400-style touch-tone modems.[5]

The Bell 103A standard was introduced by AT&T in 1962. It provided full-duplex service at 300 bit/s over normal phone lines. Frequency-shift keying was used, with the call originator transmitting at 1,070 or 1,270 Hz and the answering modem transmitting at 2,025 or 2,225 Hz.[6]

The 103 modem would eventually become a de facto standard once third-party (non-AT&T modems) reached the market, and throughout the 1970s, independently made modems compatible with the Bell 103 de facto standard were commonplace.[7] Example models included the Novation CAT and the Anderson-Jacobson. A lower-cost option was the Pennywhistle modem, designed to be built using readily available parts.[8]

Teletype machines were granted access to remote networks such as the Teletypewriter Exchange using the Bell 103 modem.[9] AT&T also produced reduced-cost units, the originate-only 113D and the answer-only 113B/C modems.

1970s

The 201A Data-Phone was a synchronous modem using two-bit-per-symbol phase-shift keying (PSK) encoding, achieving 2,000 bit/s half-duplex over normal phone lines.[10] In this system the two tones for any one side of the connection are sent at similar frequencies as in the 300 bit/s systems, but slightly out of phase.

In early 1973, Vadic introduced the VA3400 which performed full-duplex at 1,200 bit/s over a normal phone line.[11]

In November 1976, AT&T introduced the 212A modem, similar in design, but using the lower frequency set for transmission. It was not compatible with the VA3400,[12] but it would operate with 103A modem at 300 bit/s.

In 1977, Vadic responded with the VA3467 triple modem, an answer-only modem sold to computer center operators that supported Vadic's 1,200-bit/s mode, AT&T's 212A mode, and 103A operation.[13]

1980s

A significant advance in modems was the Hayes Smartmodem, introduced in 1981. The Smartmodem was an otherwise standard 103A 300 bit/s direct-connect modem, but it introduced a command language which allowed the computer to make control requests, such as commands to dial or answer calls, over the same RS-232 interface used for the data connection.[14] The command set used by this device became a de facto standard, the Hayes command set, which was integrated into devices from many other manufacturers.

Automatic dialing was not a new capability – it had been available via separate Automatic Calling Units, and via modems using the X.21 interface[15] – but the Smartmodem made it available in a single device that could be used with even the most minimal implementations of the ubiquitous RS-232 interface, making this capability accessible from virtually any system or language.[16]

The introduction of the Smartmodem made communications much simpler and more easily accessed. This provided a growing market for other vendors, who licensed the Hayes patents and competed on price or by adding features.[17] This eventually led to legal action over use of the patented Hayes command language.[18]

Dial modems generally remained at 300 and 1,200 bit/s (eventually becoming standards such as V.21 and V.22) into the mid-1980s.

In 1984, V.22bis was created, a 2,400-bit/s system similar in concept to the 1,200-bit/s Bell 212. This bit rate increases was achieved by defining four or eight distinct symbols, which allowed the encoding of two or three bits per symbol instead of only one. By the late 1980s, many modems could support improved standards like this, and 2,400-bit/s operation was becoming common.

Increasing modem speed greatly improved the responsiveness of online systems and made file transfer practical. This led to rapid growth of online services with large file libraries, which in turn gave more reason to own a modem. The rapid update of modems led to a similar rapid increase in BBS use.

The introduction of microcomputer systems with internal expansion slots made small internal modems practical. This led to a series of popular modems for the S-100 bus and Apple II computers that could directly dial out, answer incoming calls, and hang up entirely from software, the basic requirements of a bulletin board system (BBS). The seminal CBBS for instance was created on an S-100 machine with a Hayes internal modem, and a number of similar systems followed.

Echo cancellation became a feature of modems in this period, which improved the bandwidth available to both modems by allowing them to ignore their own reflected signals.

Additional improvements were introduced by quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) encoding, which increased the number of bits per symbol to four through a combination of phase shift and amplitude.

Transmitting at 1,200 baud produced the 4,800 bit/s V.27ter standard, and at 2,400 baud the 9,600 bit/s V.32. The carrier frequency was 1,650 Hz in both systems.

The introduction of these higher-speed systems also led to the development of the digital fax machine during the 1980s. While early fax technology also used modulated signals on a phone line, digital fax used the now-standard digital encoding used by computer modems. This eventually allowed computers to send and receive fax images.

1990s

In the early 1990s, V.32 modems operating at 9600 bit/s were introduced, but were expensive and were only starting to enter the market when V.32bis was standardized, which operated at 14400 bit/s.

Rockwell International's chip division developed a new driver chip set incorporating the V.32bis standard and aggressively priced it. Supra, Inc. arranged a short-term exclusivity arrangement with Rockwell, and developed the SupraFAXModem 14400 based on it. Introduced in January 1992 at $399 (or less), it was half the price of the slower V.32 modems already on the market. This led to a price war, and by the end of the year V.32 was dead, never having been really established, and V.32bis modems were widely available for $250.

V.32bis was so successful that the older high-speed standards had little advantages. USRobotics (USR) fought back with a 16800 bit/s version of HST, while AT&T introduced a one-off 19200 bit/s method they referred to as V.32ter, but neither non-standard modem sold well.

External V.34 modem with RS-232 serial port

Consumer interest in these proprietary improvements waned during the lengthy introduction of the 28800 bit/s V.34 standard. While waiting, several companies decided to release hardware and introduced modems they referred to as V.FAST.

In order to guarantee compatibility with V.34 modems once a standard was ratified (1994), manufacturers used more flexible components, generally a DSP and microcontroller, as opposed to purpose-designed ASIC modem chips. This would allow later firmware updates to conform with the standards once ratified.

The ITU standard V.34 represents the culmination of these joint efforts. It employed the most powerful coding techniques available at the time, including channel encoding and shape encoding. From the mere four bits per symbol (9.6 kbit/s), the new standards used the functional equivalent of 6 to 10 bits per symbol, plus increasing baud rates from 2,400 to 3,429, to create 14.4, 28.8, and 33.6 kbit/s modems. This rate is near the theoretical Shannon limit of a phone line.[19]

56 kbit/s technologies

While 56000 bit/s speeds had been available for leased-line modems for some time, they did not become available for dial up modems until the late 1990s.

In the late 1990s, technologies to achieve speeds above 33.6 kbit/s began to be introduced. Several approaches were used, but all of them began as solutions to a single fundamental problem with phone lines.

By the time technology companies began to investigate speeds above 33.6 kbit/s, telephone companies had switched almost entirely to all-digital networks. As soon as a phone line reached a local central office, a line card converted the analog signal from the subscriber to a digital one and conversely. While digitally encoded telephone lines notionally provide the same bandwidth as the analog systems they replaced, the digitization itself placed constraints on the types of waveforms that could be reliably encoded.

The first problem was that the process of analog-to-digital conversion is intrinsically lossy, but second, and more importantly, the digital signals used by the telcos were not "linear": they did not encode all frequencies the same way, instead utilizing a nonlinear encoding (μ-law and a-law) meant to favor the nonlinear response of the human ear to voice signals. This made it very difficult to find a 56 kbit/s encoding that could survive the digitizing process.

Modem manufacturers discovered that, while the analog to digital conversion could not preserve higher speeds, digital-to-analog conversions could. Because it was possible for an ISP to obtain a direct digital connection to a telco, a digital modem – one that connects directly to a digital telephone network interface, such as T1 or PRI – could send a signal that utilized every bit of bandwidth available in the system. While that signal still had to be converted back to analog at the subscriber end, that conversion would not distort the signal in the same way that the opposite direction did.

Early 56k dial-up products

The first 56k dial-up option was a proprietary design from USRobotics, which they called "X2" because 56k was twice the speed (×2) of 28k modems.

At that time, USRobotics held a 40% share of the retail modem market, while Rockwell International held an 80% share of the modem chipset market. Concerned with being shut out, Rockwell began work on a rival 56k technology. They joined with Lucent and Motorola to develop what they called "K56Flex" or just "Flex".

Both technologies reached the market around February 1997; although problems with K56Flex modems were noted in product reviews through July, within six months the two technologies worked equally well, with variations dependent largely on local connection characteristics.[20]

The retail price of these early 56K modems was about US$200, compared to $100 for standard 33k modems. Compatible equipment was also required at the Internet service providers (ISPs) end, with costs varying depending on whether their current equipment could be upgraded. About half of all ISPs offered 56k support by October 1997. Consumer sales were relatively low, which USRobotics and Rockwell attributed to conflicting standards.[21]

Standardized 56k (V.90/V.92)

In February 1998, The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) announced the draft of a new 56 kbit/s standard V.90 with strong industry support. Incompatible with either existing standard, it was an amalgam of both, but was designed to allow both types of modem by a firmware upgrade. The V.90 standard was approved in September 1998 and widely adopted by ISPs and consumers.[21][22]

The V.92 standard was approved by ITU in November 2000[23] and utilized digital PCM technology to increase the upload speed to a maximum of 48 kbit/s.

The high upload speed was a tradeoff. 48 kbit/s upstream rate would reduce the downstream as low as 40 kbit/s due to echo effects on the line. To avoid this problem, V.92 modems offer the option to turn off the digital upstream and instead use a plain 33.6 kbit/s analog connection in order to maintain a high digital downstream of 50 kbit/s or higher.[24]

V.92 also added two other features. The first is the ability for users who have call waiting to put their dial-up Internet connection on hold for extended periods of time while they answer a call. The second feature is the ability to quickly connect to one's ISP, achieved by remembering the analog and digital characteristics of the telephone line and using this saved information when reconnecting.

Evolution of dial-up speeds

These values are maximum values, and actual values may be slower under certain conditions (for example, noisy phone lines).[25] For a complete list see the companion article list of device bandwidths. A baud is one symbol per second; each symbol may encode one or more data bits.

Compression

Many dial-up modems implement standards for data compression to achieve higher effective throughput for the same bitrate. V.44 is an example used in conjunction with V.92 to achieve speeds greater than 56k over ordinary phone lines.

As telephone-based 56k modems began losing popularity, some Internet service providers such as Netzero/Juno, Netscape, and others started using pre-compression to increase apparent throughput. This server-side compression can operate much more efficiently than the on-the-fly compression performed within modems, because the compression techniques are content-specific (JPEG, text, EXE, etc.). Website text, images, and Flash media are typically compacted to approximately 4%, 12%, and 30%, respectively. The drawback is a loss in quality, as they use lossy compression which causes images to become pixelated and smeared. ISPs employing this approach often advertise it as "accelerated dial-up".

These accelerated downloads are integrated into the Opera and Amazon Silk web browsers, using their own server-side text and image compression.

Methods of attachment

Dial-up modems can attach in two different ways: with an acoustic coupler, or with a direct electrical connection.

Directly connected modems

The case Hush-A-Phone Corp. v. United States, which legalized acoustic couplers, applied only to mechanical connections to a telephone set, not electrical connections to the telephone line. The Carterfone decision of 1968, however, permitted customers to attach devices directly to a telephone line as long as they followed stringent Bell-defined standards for non-interference with the phone network.[31] This opened the door to independent (non-AT&T) manufacture of direct-connect modems, that plugged directly into the phone line rather than via an acoustic coupler.

While Carterfone required AT&T to permit connection of devices, AT&T successfully argued that they should be allowed to require the use of a special device to protect their network, placed in between the third-party modem and the line, called a Data Access Arrangement or DAA. The use of DAAs was mandatory from 1969 to 1975 when the new FCC Part 68 rules allowed the use of devices without a Bell-provided DAA, subject to equivalent circuitry being included in the third-party device.[32]

Virtually all modems produced after the 1980s are direct-connect.

Acoustic couplers

See also: Acoustic coupler

While Bell (AT&T) provided modems that attached via direct wire connection to the phone network as early as 1958, their regulations at the time did not permit the direct electrical connection of any non-Bell device to a telephone line. However, the Hush-a-Phone ruling allowed customers to attach any device to a telephone set as long as it did not interfere with its functionality. This allowed third-party (non-Bell) manufacturers to sell modems utilizing an acoustic coupler.[31]

With an acoustic coupler, an ordinary telephone handset was placed in a cradle containing a speaker and microphone positioned to match up with those on the handset. The tones used by the modem were transmitted and received into the handset, which then relayed them to the phone line.[33]

Because the modem was not electrically connected, it was incapable of picking up, hanging up or dialing, all of which required direct control of the line. Touch-tone dialing would have been possible, but touch-tone was not universally available at this time. Consequently, the dialing process was executed by the user lifting the handset, dialing, then placing the handset on the coupler. To accelerate this process, a user could purchase a dialer or Automatic Calling Unit.

Automatic Calling Units / Dialers

Early modems – could not place or receive calls on their own, but required human intervention for these steps.

As early as 1964, Bell provided Automatic Calling Units that connected separately to a second serial port on a host machine and could be commanded to open the line, dial a number, and even ensure the far end had successfully connected before transferring control to the modem.[34] Later on, third-party models would become available, sometimes known simply as dialers, and features such as the ability to automatically sign in to time-sharing systems.[35]

Eventually this capability would be built into modems and no longer require a separate device.

Controller-based modems vs. soft modems

Main article: Softmodem

Prior to the 1990s, modems contained all the electronics and intelligence to convert data in discrete form to an analog (modulated) signal and back again, and to handle the dialing process, as a mix of discrete logic and special-purpose chips. This type of modem is sometimes referred to as controller-based.[36]

In 1993, Digicom introduced the Connection 96 Plus, a modem which replaced the discrete and custom components with a general purpose digital signal processor, which could be reprogrammed to upgrade to newer standards.[37]

Subsequently, USRobotics released the Sportster Winmodem, a similarly upgradable DSP-based design.[38]

As this design trend spread, both terms – soft modem and Winmodem – obtained a negative connotation in non-Windows-based computing circles because the drivers were either unavailable for non-Windows platforms, or were only available as unmaintainable closed-source binaries, a particular problem for Linux users.[39]

Later in the 1990s, software-based modems became available. These are essentially sound cards, and in fact a common design uses the AC'97 audio codec, which provides multichannel audio to a PC and includes three audio channels for modem signals.

The audio sent and received on the line by a modem of this type is generated and processed entirely in software, often in a device driver. There is little functional difference from the user's perspective, but this design reduces the cost of a modem by moving most of the processing power into inexpensive software instead of expensive hardware DSPs or discrete components.

Soft modems of both types either are internal cards or connect over external buses such as USB. They never utilize RS-232 because they require high bandwidth channels to the host computers to carry the raw audio signals generated (sent) or analyzed (received) by software.

Since the interface is not RS-232, there is no standard for communication with the device directly. Instead, soft modems come with drivers which create an emulated RS-232 port, which standard modem software (such as an operating system dialer application) can communicate with.

Voice/fax modems

"Voice" and "fax" are terms added to describe any dial modem that is capable of recording/playing audio or transmitting/receiving faxes. Some modems are capable of all three functions.[40]

Voice modems are used for computer telephony integration applications as simple as placing/receiving calls directly through a computer with a headset, and as complex as fully automated robocalling systems.

Fax modems can be used for computer-based faxing, in which faxes are sent and received without inbound or outbound faxes ever needing to ever be printed on paper. This differs from efax, in which faxing occurs over the internet, in some cases involving no phone lines whatsoever.

Modem Over IP (Modem Relay)

The ITU-T V.150.1 Recommendation defines procedures for the inter-operation of PSTN to IP gateways.[41] In a classic example of this setup, each dial-up modem would connect to a modem relay gateway. The gateways are then connected to an IP network (such as the Internet). The analog connection from the modem is terminated at the gateway and the signal is demodulated. The demodulated control signals are transported over the IP network in an RTP packet type defined as State Signaling Events (SSEs). The data from the demodulated signal is sent over the IP network via a transport protocol (also defined as an RTP payload) called Simple Packet Relay Transport (SPRT). Both the SSE and SPRT packet formats are defined in the V.150.1 Recommendation (Annex C and Annex B respectively). The gateway at the remote end that receives the packets uses the information to re-modulate the signal for the modem connected at that end.

While the V.150.1 Recommendation is not widely deployed, a pared down version of the recommendation called "Minimum Essential Requirements (MER) for V.150.1 Gateways" (SCIP-216) is used in Secure Telephony applications.[42]

Cloud-based Modems

While traditionally a hardware device, fully software-based modems with the ability to be deployed in a cloud environment (such as Microsoft Azure or AWS) do exist.[43] Leveraging a Voice-over-IP (VoIP) connection through a SIP Trunk, the modulated audio samples are generated and sent over an IP network via RTP and an uncompressed audio codec (such as G.711 μ-law or a-law).

Popularity

A 1994 Software Publishers Association found that although 60% of computers in US households had a modem, only 7% of households went online.[44] A CEA study in 2006 found that dial-up Internet access was declining in the US. In 2000, dial-up Internet connections accounted for 74% of all US residential Internet connections.[citation needed] The United States demographic pattern for dial-up modem users per capita has been more or less mirrored in Canada and Australia for the past 20 years.

Dial-up modem use in the US had dropped to 60% by 2003, and in 2006, stood at 36%.[citation needed] Voiceband modems were once the most popular means of Internet access in the US, but with the advent of new ways of accessing the Internet, the traditional 56K modem was losing popularity. The dial-up modem is still widely used by customers in rural areas where DSL, cable, wireless broadband, satellite, or fiber optic service are either not available or they are unwilling to pay what the available broadband companies charge.[45] In its 2012 annual report, AOL showed it still collected around $700 million in fees from about three million dial-up users.

TTY/TDD

TDD devices are a subset of the teleprinter intended for use by the deaf or hard of hearing, essentially a small teletype with a built-in dial-up modem and acoustic coupler. The first models produced in 1964 utilized FSK modulation much like early computer modems.

A leased line modem also uses ordinary phone wiring, like dial-up and DSL, but does not use the same network topology. While dial-up uses a normal phone line and connects through the telephone switching system, and DSL uses a normal phone line but connects to equipment at the telco central office, leased lines do not terminate at the telco.

Leased lines are pairs of telephone wire that have been connected together at one or more telco central offices so that they form a continuous circuit between two subscriber locations, such as a business' headquarters and a satellite office. They provide no power or dialtone - they are simply a pair of wires connected at two distant locations.

A dialup modem will not function across this type of line, because it does not provide the power, dialtone and switching that those modems require. However, a modem with leased-line capability can operate over such a line, and in fact can have greater performance because the line is not passing through the telco switching equipment, the signal is not filtered, and therefore greater bandwidth is available.

Leased-line modems can operate in 2-wire or 4-wire mode. The former uses a single pair of wires and can only transmit in one direction at a time, while the latter uses two pairs of wires and can transmit in both directions simultaneously. When two pairs are available, bandwidth can be as high as 1.5 Mbit/s, a full data T1 circuit.[46]

The term broadband was previously[47][48] used to describe communications faster than what was available on voice grade channels.

The term broadband gained widespread adoption in the late 1990s to describe internet access technology exceeding the 56 kilobit/s maximum of dialup. There are many broadband technologies, such as various DSL (digital subscriber line) technologies and cable broadband.

DSL technologies such as ADSL, HDSL, and VDSL use telephone lines (wires that were installed by a telephone company and originally intended for use by a telephone subscriber) but do not utilize most of the rest of the telephone system. Their signals are not sent through ordinary phone exchanges, but are instead received by special equipment (a DSLAM) at the telephone company central office.

Because the signal does not pass through the telephone exchange, no "dialing" is required, and the bandwidth constraints of an ordinary voice call are not imposed. This allows much higher frequencies, and therefore much faster speeds. ADSL in particular is designed to permit voice calls and data usage over the same line simultaneously.

Similarly, cable modems use infrastructure originally intended to carry television signals, and like DSL, typically permit receiving television signals at the same time as broadband internet service.

Other broadband modems include FTTx modems, satellite modems, and power line modems.

Terminology

Different terms are used for broadband modems, because they frequently contain more than just a modulation/demodulation component.

Because high-speed connections are frequently used by multiple computers at once, many broadband modems do not have direct (e.g. USB) PC connections, but connect over a network such as Ethernet or Wi-Fi. Early broadband modems offered Ethernet handoff allowing the use of one or more public IP addresses, but no other services such as NAT and DHCP that would allow multiple computers to share one connection. This led to many consumers purchasing separate "broadband routers," placed between the modem and their network, to perform these functions.[49][50]

Eventually, ISPs began providing residential gateways which combined the modem and broadband router into a single package that provided routing, NAT, security features, and even Wi-Fi access in addition to modem functionality, so that subscribers could connect their entire household without purchasing any extra equipment. Even later, these devices were extended to provide "triple play" features such as telephony and television service. Nonetheless, these devices are still often referred to simply as "modems" by service providers and manufacturers.[51]

Consequently, the terms "modem", "router", and "gateway" are now used interchangeably in casual speech, but in a technical context "modem" may carry a specific connotation of basic functionality with no routing or other features, while the others describe a device with features such as NAT.[52][53]

Broadband modems may also handle authentication such as PPPoE. While it is often possible to authenticate a broadband connection from a users PC, as was the case with dial-up internet service, moving this task to the broadband modem allows it to establish and maintain the connection itself, which makes sharing access between PCs easier since each one does not have to authenticate separately. Broadband modems typically remain authenticated to the ISP as long as they are powered on.

Any communication technology sending digital data wirelessly involves a modem. This includes direct broadcast satellite, WiFi, WiMax, mobile phones, GPS, Bluetooth and NFC.

Modern telecommunications and data networks also make extensive use of radio modems where long distance data links are required. Such systems are an important part of the PSTN, and are also in common use for high-speed computer network links to outlying areas where fiber optic is not economical.

Wireless modems come in a variety of types, bandwidths, and speeds. Wireless modems are often referred to as transparent or smart. They transmit information that is modulated onto a carrier frequency to allow many wireless communication links to work simultaneously on different frequencies.[relevant?]

Transparent modems operate in a manner similar to their phone line modem cousins. Typically, they were half duplex, meaning that they could not send and receive data at the same time. Typically, transparent modems are polled in a round robin manner to collect small amounts of data from scattered locations that do not have easy access to wired infrastructure. Transparent modems are most commonly used by utility companies for data collection.

Smart modems come with media access controllers inside, which prevents random data from colliding and resends data that is not correctly received. Smart modems typically require more bandwidth than transparent modems, and typically achieve higher data rates. The IEEE 802.11 standard defines a short range modulation scheme that is used on a large scale throughout the world.

Mobile broadband

See also: Mobile broadband and Mobile broadband modem

Modems which use a mobile telephone system (GPRS, UMTS, HSPA, EVDO, WiMax, 5G etc.), are known as mobile broadband modems (sometimes also called wireless modems). Wireless modems can be embedded inside a laptop, mobile phone or other device, or be connected externally. External wireless modems include connect cards, USB modems, and cellular routers.

Most GSM wireless modems come with an integrated SIM cardholder (i.e. Huawei E220, Sierra 881.) Some models are also provided with a microSD memory slot and/or jack for additional external antenna, (Huawei E1762, Sierra Compass 885.)[54][55]

The CDMA (EVDO) versions do not typically use R-UIM cards, but use Electronic Serial Number (ESN) instead.

Until the end of April 2011, worldwide shipments of USB modems surpassed embedded 3G and 4G modules by 3:1 because USB modems can be easily discarded. Embedded modems may overtake separate modems as tablet sales grow and the incremental cost of the modems shrinks, so by 2016, the ratio may change to 1:1.[56]

Like mobile phones, mobile broadband modems can be SIM locked to a particular network provider. Unlocking a modem is achieved the same way as unlocking a phone, by using an 'unlock code'.[citation needed]

A modem that connects to a fiber optic network is known as an optical network terminal (ONT) or optical network unit (ONU). These are commonly used in fiber to the home installations, installed inside or outside a house to convert the optical medium to a copper Ethernet interface, after which a router or gateway is often installed to perform authentication, routing, NAT, and other typical consumer internet functions, in addition to "triple play" features such as telephony and television service.

Fiber optic systems can use quadrature amplitude modulation to maximize throughput. 16QAM uses a 16-point constellation to send four bits per symbol, with speeds on the order of 200 or 400 gigabits per second.[57][58] 64QAM uses a 64-point constellation to send six bits per symbol, with speeds up to 65 terabits per second. Although this technology has been announced, it may not yet be commonly used.[59][60][61]

Although the name modem is seldom used, some high-speed home networking applications do use modems, such as powerline ethernet. The G.hn standard for instance, developed by ITU-T, provides a high-speed (up to 1 Gbit/s) local area network using existing home wiring (power lines, phone lines, and coaxial cables). G.hn devices use orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) to modulate a digital signal for transmission over the wire.

As described above, technologies like Wi-Fi and Bluetooth also use modems to communicate over radio at short distances.

A null modem cable is a specially wired cable connected between the serial ports of two devices, with the transmit and receive lines reversed. It is used to connect two devices directly without a modem. The same software or hardware typically used with modems (such as Procomm or Minicom) could be used with this type of connection.

A null modem adapter is a small device with plugs on both end which is placed on the end of a normal "straight-through" serial cable to convert it into a null-modem cable.

A "short haul modem" is a device that bridges the gap between leased-line and dial-up modems. Like a leased-line modem, they transmit over "bare" lines with no power or telco switching equipment, but are not intended for the same distances that leased lines can achieve. Ranges up to several miles are possible, but significantly, short-haul modems can be used for medium distances, greater than the maximum length of a basic serial cable but still relatively short, such as within a single building or campus. This allows a serial connection to be extended for perhaps only several hundred to several thousand feet, a case where obtaining an entire telephone or leased line would be overkill.

While some short-haul modems do in fact use modulation, low-end devices (for reasons of cost or power consumption) are simple "line drivers" that increase the level of the digital signal but do not modulate it. These are not technically modems, but the same terminology is used for them.[62]

• 56 kbit/s line
• Automatic negotiation
• BBN Technologies
• Command and Data modes (modem)
• Fax demodulator
• List of device bit rates
• List of ITU-T V-series recommendations
• Modulation
• RJ-11
• Time Independent Escape Sequence
• Wake-on-ring

1. ^ Bellis, Mary (2017-12-31). "History of the Modem". ThoughtCo.com. Retrieved 2021-04-05.
2. ^ "National Security Agency Central Security Service > About Us > Cryptologic Heritage > Historical Figures and Publications > Publications > WWII > Sigsaly – The Start of the Digital Revolution". NSA.gov. Retrieved 2020-08-13.
3. ^ Manjoo, Farhad (2009-02-24). "The unrecognizable Internet of 1996". Slate Magazine. Retrieved 2020-08-10.
4. ^ Brenner, Joanna. "3% of Americans use dial-up at home". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 2020-08-10.
5. ^ Don Lancaster. "TV Typewriter Cookbook". 1976. (TV Typewriter). Section "400-Style (Touch-Tone) Modems". pp. 177–178.
6. ^ Internet, Tamsin Oxford 2009-12-26T11:00:00 359Z (26 December 2009). "Getting connected: a history of modems". TechRadar. Retrieved 2018-12-12.
7. ^ "Computerworld". Internet Archive. 1969-03-05. Retrieved 2020-08-13.
8. ^ "Pennywhistle 103, modem kit 1976: : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming". Internet Archive. Retrieved 2020-08-13.
9. ^ "Bell 103A Interface Specifications" (PDF). 1967.
10. ^ "Lockheed MAC 16 options reference manual". Internet Archive. 1969-11-01. Retrieved 2020-08-14.
11. ^ Enterprise, I. D. G. (1976-09-27). Computerworld. IDG Enterprise.
12. ^ Enterprise, I. D. G. (1986-02-17). Computerworld. IDG Enterprise.
13. ^ Enterprise, I. D. G. (1977-11-14). Computerworld. IDG Enterprise.
14. ^ Enterprise, I. D. G. (1981-04-27). Computerworld. IDG Enterprise.
15. ^ Jennings, Fred (1986). Practical data communications : modems, networks and protocols : Jennings, Fred : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming. Internet Archive. ISBN 9780632013067. Retrieved 2020-08-14.
16. ^ "Compute! Magazine Issue 012 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming". Internet Archive. May 1981. Retrieved 2020-08-14.
17. ^ Enterprise, I. D. G. (1987-03-30). Computerworld. IDG Enterprise.
18. ^ Enterprise, I. D. G. (1987). Computerworld. IDG Enterprise.
19. ^ Held, Gilbert (2000). Understanding Data Communications: From Fundamentals to Networking Third Edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. pp. 68–69.
20. ^ Ross, John A. (2001). Telecommunication technologies: voice, data & fiber-optic applications. Indianapolis, Ind.: Prompt. p. 185. ISBN 0-7906-1225-9. OCLC 45745196.
21. ^ a b Greenstein, Shane; Stango, Victor (2006). Standards and Public Policy. Cambridge University Press. pp. 129–132. ISBN 978-1-139-46075-0. Archived from the original on 2017-03-24.
22. ^ "Agreement reached on 56K Modem standard". International Telecommunication Union. 9 February 1998. Archived from the original on 2 October 2017. Retrieved 5 September 2018.
23. ^ "V.92: Enhancements to Recommendation V.90". www.itu.int. Retrieved 2020-06-29.
24. ^ "V.92 – News & Updates". November and October 2000 updates. Archived from the original on 20 September 2012. Retrieved 17 September 2012.
25. ^ tsbmail (2011-04-15). "Data communication over the telephone network". Itu.int. Archived from the original on 2014-01-27. Retrieved 2014-02-10.
26. ^ a b c d e f g h "29.2 Historical Modem Protocols". tldp.org. Archived from the original on 2014-01-02. Retrieved 2014-02-10.
27. ^ "concordia.ca – Data Communication and Computer Networks" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-10-07. Retrieved 2014-02-10.
28. ^ "Group 3 Facsimile Communication". garretwilson.com. 2013-09-20. Archived from the original on 2014-02-03. Retrieved 2014-02-10.
29. ^ "upatras.gr – Implementation of a V.34 modem on a Digital Signal Processor" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-03-06. Retrieved 2014-02-10.
30. ^ Jones, Les. "Bonding: 112K, 168K, and beyond". 56K.COM. Archived from the original on 1997-12-10.
31. ^ a b "The History of the Modem". Techopedia.com. Retrieved 2020-08-13.
32. ^ Enterprise, I. D. G. (1975-11-12). Computerworld. IDG Enterprise.
33. ^ "The Modem | Invention & Technology Magazine". www.inventionandtech.com. Retrieved 2020-08-13.
34. ^ "801A Automatic Calling Unit Interface Specification" (PDF). 1964-03-01.
35. ^ "Computerworld". Internet Archive. 1970-02-18. Retrieved 2020-08-13.
36. ^ "USRobotics 56K Modem Education: What are the different types of modems?". support.usr.com. Retrieved 2020-08-11.
37. ^ "PC Computing Magazine Volume 6 Issue 7 : Ziff-Davis Publishing : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming". Internet Archive. July 1993. Retrieved 2020-08-14.
38. ^ "InfoWorld : InfoWorld Media Group, Inc. : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming". Internet Archive. 17 June 1996. Retrieved 2020-08-14.
39. ^ "Modem-HOWTO – Modems for a Linux PC • tldp.Docs.sk". tldp.docs.sk. Retrieved 2020-08-14.
40. ^ ID, FCC. "E110 56K Data/Fax Voice Soeakphone External Modem User Manual PTT Turbocomm Tech ". FCC ID. Retrieved 2020-08-13.
41. ^ "ITU-T Recommendation database". ITU. Retrieved 2021-12-30.
42. ^ "Iicwg Scip 216". nisp.nw3.dk. Retrieved 2021-12-30.
43. ^ "SIP Software Modem - Modem without an analog line". www.vocal.com. Retrieved 2021-12-30.
44. ^ "Software Publishing Association Unveils New Data". Read.Me. Computer Gaming World. May 1994. p. 12. Archived from the original on 2014-07-03. Retrieved 2017-11-11.
45. ^ Suzanne Choney. "AOL still has 3.5 million dial-up subscribers – Technology on NBCNews.com". NBC News. Archived from the original on 2013-01-01. Retrieved 2014-02-10.
46. ^ "MODEMS lease line modem". www.data-connect.com. Retrieved 2020-08-11.
47. ^ R. F. Rey, ed. (1984). "2.2.3 Data Products" (PDF). Engineering and Operations in the Bell System (PDF) (Second ed.). AT&T Bell Laboratories. p. 45. ISBN 0-932764-04-5. LCCN 83-72956. 500-478. Retrieved April 1, 2022. Speeds on broadband private-line channels range from 19.2 to 230.4 kbps.
48. ^ R. F. Rey, ed. (1984). "6.2.1 Basic Concept" (PDF). Engineering and Operations in the Bell System (PDF) (Second ed.). AT&T Bell Laboratories. p. 199. ISBN 0-932764-04-5. LCCN 83-72956. 500-478. Retrieved April 1, 2022. Analog channels can be further characterized by bandwidth: narrowband channels (for example, 100 Hz, 200 Hz); voiceband channels (4 kHz);4 broadband channels (for example, 48 kHz, 240 kHz).
49. ^ "What's the Difference between a Modem and Router?". Lifewire. Retrieved 2021-11-23.
50. ^ "Modem vs. router: The differences between the pieces of hardware that connect you to the internet, explained". Business Insider Australia. 2021-04-07. Retrieved 2021-11-23.
51. ^ hp.com/us-en/shop/tech-takes/modem-vs-router
52. ^ "Modem vs. Router: What's the Difference?". Wirecutter: Reviews for the Real World. 2021-02-11. Retrieved 2021-11-23.
53. ^ "Modem vs Router: What's the Difference?". Xfinity. Retrieved 2021-11-23.
54. ^ "HUAWEI E1762,HSPA/UMTS 900/2100 Support 2Mbps (5.76Mbps ready) HSUPA and 7.2Mbps HSDPA services". 3gmodem.com.hk. Archived from the original on 2013-05-10. Retrieved 2013-04-22.
55. ^ "Sierra Wireless Compass 885 HSUPA 3G modem". The Register. Archived from the original on 2013-01-04. Retrieved 2014-02-10.
56. ^ Lawson, Stephen (May 2, 2011). "Laptop Users Still Prefer USB Modems". PCWorld. IDG Consumer & SMB. Archived from the original on September 27, 2016. Retrieved 2016-08-13.
57. ^ Michael Kassner (February 10, 2015). "Researchers double throughput of long-distance fiber optics". TechRepublic. Archived from the original on November 9, 2016.
58. ^ Bengt-Erik Olsson; Anders Djupsjöbacka; Jonas Mårtensson; Arne Alping (6 Dec 2011). "112 Gbit/s RF-assisted dual carrier DP-16-QAM transmitter using optical phase modulator". Optics Express. Optical Society of America. 19 (26): B784-9. Bibcode:2011OExpr..19B.784O. doi:10.1364/oe.19.00b784. PMID 22274103. S2CID 32757398.
59. ^ Stephen Hardy (March 17, 2016). "ClariPhy targets 400G with new 16-nm DSP silicon". LIGHTWAVE. Archived from the original on November 9, 2016.
60. ^ "ClariPhy Shatters Fiber and System Capacity Barriers with Industry's First 16nm Coherent Optical Networking Platform". optics.org. 17 Mar 2016.
61. ^ "Nokia Bell Labs achieve 65 Terabit-per-second transmission record for transoceanic cable systems". Noika. 12 October 2016. Archived from the original on 9 November 2016. Retrieved 8 November 2016.
62. ^ "Modem". www.trine2.net.au. Retrieved 2020-08-13.

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Transferring Data between Standard Dial-Up Modems

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Modems.

• Hayes-compatible Modems and AT Commands from the Serial Data Communications Programming Wikibook
• International Telecommunication Union ITU: Data communication over the telephone network
• Basic handshakes & modulations – V.22, V.22bis, V.32 and V.34 handshakes
• Getting connected: a history of modems – techradar
• Difference between Modems and Routers – Bugswave
• Telecommunications Transmission_Engineering Volume 2 Facilities - AT&T

5G networks are cellular networks, in which the service area is divided into small geographical areas called cells. All 5G wireless devices in a cell communicate by radio waves with a cellular base station via fixed antennas, over frequency channels assigned by the base station. The base stations, termed nodes, are connected to switching centers in the telephone network and routers for Internet access by high-bandwidth optical fiber or wireless backhaul connections. As in other cellular networks, a mobile device moving from one cell to another is automatically handed off seamlessly. 5G is expected to support up to a million devices per square kilometer.

The industry consortium setting standards for 5G, the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), defines "5G" as any system using 5G NR (5G New Radio) software - a definition that came into general use by late 2018.

Several network operators use millimeter waves called FR2 in 5G terminology, for additional capacity and higher throughputs. Millimeter waves have a shorter range than the lower frequency microwaves, therefore the cells are of a smaller size. Millimeter waves also have more trouble passing through building walls. Millimeter-wave antennas are smaller than the large antennas used in previous cellular networks. Some are only a few centimeters long.

The increased data rate is achieved partly by using additional higher-frequency radio waves in addition to the low- and medium-band frequencies used in previous cellular networks. For providing a wide range of services, 5G networks can operate in three frequency bands – : low, medium, and high.

5G can be implemented in low-band, mid-band or high-band millimeter-wave 24 GHz up to 54 GHz. Low-band 5G uses a similar frequency range to 4G cellphones, 600–900 MHz, giving download speeds a little higher than 4G: 30–250 megabits per second (Mbit/s).[5] Low-band cell towers have a range and coverage area similar to 4G towers. Mid-band 5G uses microwaves of 1.7–4.7 GHz, allowing speeds of 100–900 Mbit/s, with each cell tower providing service up to several kilometers in radius. This level of service is the most widely deployed, and was deployed in many metropolitan areas in 2020. Some regions are not implementing the low band, making Mid-band the minimum service level. High-band 5G uses frequencies of 24–47 GHz, near the bottom of the millimeter wave band, although higher frequencies may be used in the future. It often achieves download speeds in the gigabit-per-second (Gbit/s) range, comparable to cable internet. However, millimeter waves (mmWave or mmW) have a more limited range, requiring many small cells.[6] They can be impeded or blocked by materials in walls or windows.[7] Due to their higher cost, plans are to deploy these cells only in dense urban environments and areas where crowds of people congregate such as sports stadiums and convention centers. The above speeds are those achieved in actual tests in 2020, and speeds are expected to increase during rollout.[5] The spectrum ranging from 24.25–29.5 GHz has been the most licensed and deployed 5G mmWave spectrum range in the world.[citation needed]

Rollout of 5G technology has led to debate over its security and relationship with Chinese vendors. It has also been the subject of health concerns and misinformation, including discredited conspiracy theories linking it to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Application areas

The ITU-R has defined three main application areas for the enhanced capabilities of 5G. They are Enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB), Ultra Reliable Low Latency Communications (URLLC), and Massive Machine Type Communications (mMTC).[8] Only eMBB is deployed in 2020; URLLC and mMTC are several years away in most locations.[9]

Enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB) uses 5G as a progression from 4G LTE mobile broadband services, with faster connections, higher throughput, and more capacity. This will benefit areas of higher traffic such as stadiums, cities, and concert venues.[10]

Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency Communications (URLLC) refer to using the network for mission critical applications that require uninterrupted and robust data exchange. The short-packet data transmission is used to meet both reliability and latency requirements of the wireless communication networks.

Massive Machine-Type Communications (mMTC) would be used to connect to a large number of devices. 5G technology will connect some of the 50 billion connected IoT devices.[11] Most will use the less expensive Wi-Fi. Drones, transmitting via 4G or 5G, will aid in disaster recovery efforts, providing real-time data for emergency responders.[11] Most cars will have a 4G or 5G cellular connection for many services. Autonomous cars do not require 5G, as they have to be able to operate where they do not have a network connection.[12] However, most autonomous vehicles also feature teleoperations for mission accomplishment, and these greatly benefit from 5G technology.[13][14]

5G speeds will range from around 50 Mbps to 1,000 Mbps (1 Gbps) depending on the RF channel and BS load. The fastest 5G speeds would be in the mmWave bands and can reach 4 Gbit/s with carrier aggregation and MIMO (assuming a perfect channel and no other BS load).

Sub-6 GHz 5G (mid-band), by far the most common, can deliver between 10 and 1,000 Mbps; it will have a much further reach than mmWave bands. In the sub-6 bands, C-Band (n77/n78) will be deployed by various U.S. operators in 2022. C-Band had been planned to be deployed by Verizon and AT&T in early January 2022 but was delayed due to safety concerns raised by the Federal Aviation Administration.[15][16]

Low bands (such as n5) offer a greater range, thereby a greater coverage area for a given site, but their speeds are lower than the mid and high bands.

Latency

In 5G, the ideal "air latency" is of the order of 8–12 milliseconds i.e., excluding delays due to HARQ retransmissions, handovers, etc. Retransmission latency and backhaul latency to the server must be added to the "air latency" for correct comparisons. Verizon reported the latency on its 5G early deployment is 30 ms. Edge Servers close to the towers can probably reduce latency to 10 - 15 ms.

Latency is much higher during handovers; ranging from 50 to 500 milliseconds depending on the type of handover. Reducing handover interruption time is an ongoing area of research and development.

Error rate

5G uses adaptive modulation and coding scheme (MCS) to keep the bit error rate (BLER) extremely low. Whenever the error rate crosses a (very low) threshold the transmitter will switch to a lower MCS, which will be less error-prone. This way speed is sacrificed to ensure an almost zero error rate.

Range

The range of 5G depends on many factors: transmit power, frequency, and interference. For example, mmWave (e.g.: n256 band) will have a lower range than mid-band (e.g.: n78 band) which will have a lower range than low-band (e.g.: n5 band)

Given the marketing hype on what 5G can offer, simulators and drive tests are used by cellular service providers for the precise measurement of 5G performance.

Initially, the term was associated with the International Telecommunication Union's IMT-2020 standard, which required a theoretical peak download speed of 20 gigabits per second and 10 gigabits per second upload speed, along with other requirements.[17] Then, the industry standards group 3GPP chose the 5G NR (New Radio) standard together with LTE as their proposal for submission to the IMT-2020 standard.[18][19]

5G NR can include lower frequencies (FR1), below 6 GHz, and higher frequencies (FR2), above 24 GHz. However, the speed and latency in early FR1 deployments, using 5G NR software on 4G hardware (non-standalone), are only slightly better than new 4G systems, estimated at 15 to 50% better.[20][21][22]

The standard documents for 5G are organized by 3GPP.[23][24]

The 5G system architecture is defined in TS 23.501.[25] The packet protocol for mobility management (establishing connection and moving between base stations) and session management (connecting to networks and network slices) is described in TS 24.501.[26] Specifications of key data structures are found in TS 23.003.[27]

Fronthaul network

IEEE covers several areas of 5G with a core focus in wireline sections between the Remote Radio Head (RRH) and Base Band Unit (BBU). The 1914.1 standards focus on network architecture and dividing the connection between the RRU and BBU into two key sections. Radio Unit (RU) to the Distributor Unit (DU) being the NGFI-I (Next Generation Fronthaul Interface) and the DU to the Central Unit (CU) being the NGFI-II interface allowing a more diverse and cost-effective network. NGFI-I and NGFI-II have defined performance values which should be compiled to ensure different traffic types defined by the ITU are capable of being carried.[page needed] The IEEE 1914.3 standard is creating a new Ethernet frame format capable of carrying IQ data in a much more efficient way depending on the functional split utilized. This is based on the 3GPP definition of functional splits.[page needed]

5G NR

Main article: 5G NR

5G NR (New Radio) is a new air interface developed for the 5G network.[28] It is supposed to be the global standard for the air interface of 3GPP 5G networks.[29]

Pre-standard implementations

• 5GTF: The 5G network implemented by American carrier Verizon for Fixed Wireless Access in late 2010s uses a pre-standard specification known as 5GTF (Verizon 5G Technical Forum). The 5G service provided to customers in this standard is incompatible with 5G NR. There are plans to upgrade 5GTF to 5G NR "Once [it] meets our strict specifications for our customers," according to Verizon.[30][needs update?]
• 5G-SIG: Pre-standard specification of 5G developed by KT Corporation. Deployed at Pyeongchang 2018 Winter Olympics.[31]

Internet of things

In the Internet of things (IoT), 3GPP is going to submit evolution of NB-IoT and eMTC (LTE-M) as 5G technologies for the LPWA (Low Power Wide Area) use case.[32]

See also: List of 5G NR networks

Beyond mobile operator networks, 5G is also expected to be used for private networks with applications in industrial IoT, enterprise networking, and critical communications, in what being described as NR-U (5G NR in Unlicensed Spectrum)[33]

Initial 5G NR launches depended on pairing with existing LTE (4G) infrastructure in non-standalone (NSA) mode (5G NR radio with 4G core), before maturation of the standalone (SA) mode with the 5G core network.[34]

As of April 2019, the Global Mobile Suppliers Association had identified 224 operators in 88 countries that have demonstrated, are testing or trialing, or have been licensed to conduct field trials of 5G technologies, are deploying 5G networks or have announced service launches.[35] The equivalent numbers in November 2018 were 192 operators in 81 countries.[36] The first country to adopt 5G on a large scale was South Korea, in April 2019. Swedish telecoms giant Ericsson predicted that 5G internet will cover up to 65% of the world's population by the end of 2025.[37] Also, it plans to invest 1 billion reals ($238.30 million) in Brazil to add a new assembly line dedicated to fifth-generation technology (5G) for its Latin American operations.[38]

When South Korea launched its 5G network, all carriers used Samsung, Ericsson, and Nokia base stations and equipment, except for LG U Plus, who also used Huawei equipment.[39][40] Samsung was the largest supplier for 5G base stations in South Korea at launch, having shipped 53,000 base stations at the time, out of 86,000 base stations installed across the country at the time.[41]

The first fairly substantial deployments were in April 2019. In South Korea, SK Telecom claimed 38,000 base stations, KT Corporation 30,000 and LG U Plus 18,000; of which 85% are in six major cities.[42] They are using 3.5 GHz (sub-6) spectrum in non-standalone (NSA) mode and tested speeds were from 193 to 430 Mbit/s down.[43] 260,000 signed up in the first month and 4.7 million by the end of 2019.[44] T-Mobile US was the 1st company in the world to launch a commercially available 5G NR Standalone network.[45]

Nine companies sell 5G radio hardware and 5G systems for carriers: Altiostar, Cisco Systems, Datang Telecom/Fiberhome, Ericsson, Huawei, Nokia, Qualcomm, Samsung, and ZTE.[46][47][48][49][50][51][52]

Spectrum

Large quantities of new radio spectrum (5G NR frequency bands) have been allocated to 5G.[53] For example, in July 2016, the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) freed up vast amounts of bandwidth in underused high-band spectrum for 5G. The Spectrum Frontiers Proposal (SFP) doubled the amount of millimeter-wave unlicensed spectrum to 14 GHz and created four times the amount of flexible, mobile-use spectrum the FCC had licensed to date.[54] In March 2018, European Union lawmakers agreed to open up the 3.6 and 26 GHz bands by 2020.[55]

As of March 2019[update], there are reportedly 52 countries, territories, special administrative regions, disputed territories and dependencies that are formally considering introducing certain spectrum bands for terrestrial 5G services, are holding consultations regarding suitable spectrum allocations for 5G, have reserved spectrum for 5G, have announced plans to auction frequencies or have already allocated spectrum for 5G use.[56]

In March 2019, the Global Mobile Suppliers Association released the industry's first database tracking worldwide 5G device launches.[57] In it, the GSA identified 23 vendors who have confirmed the availability of forthcoming 5G devices with 33 different devices including regional variants. There were seven announced 5G device form factors: (telephones (×12 devices), hotspots (×4), indoor and outdoor customer-premises equipment (×8), modules (×5), Snap-on dongles and adapters (×2), and USB terminals (×1)).[58] By October 2019, the number of announced 5G devices had risen to 129, across 15 form factors, from 56 vendors.[59]

In the 5G IoT chipset arena, as of April 2019 there were four commercial 5G modem chipsets and one commercial processor/platform, with more launches expected in the near future.[60]

On March 6, 2020, the first-ever all-5G smartphone Samsung Galaxy S20 was released. According to Business Insider, the 5G feature was showcased as more expensive in comparison with 4G; the line up starts at US$1,000, in comparison with Samsung Galaxy S10e which started at US$750.[61] On March 19, HMD Global, the current maker of Nokia-branded phones, announced the Nokia 8.3 5G, which it claimed as having a wider range of 5G compatibility than any other phone released to that time. The mid-range model, with an initial Eurozone price of €599, is claimed to support all 5G bands from 600 MHz to 3.8 GHz.[62]

Many phone manufacturers support 5G. Apple iPhone 12 and later versions support 5G.[63][64] Google Pixel phones support it, since version 5a.[65]

See also: 5G NR frequency bands

The air interface defined by 3GPP for 5G is known as New Radio (NR), and the specification is subdivided into two frequency bands, FR1 (below 6 GHz) and FR2 (24–54 GHz)

Frequency range 1 (< 6 GHz)

Otherwise known as sub-6, the maximum channel bandwidth defined for FR1 is 100 MHz, due to the scarcity of continuous spectrum in this crowded frequency range. The band most widely being used for 5G in this range is 3.3–4.2 GHz. The Korean carriers use the n78 band at 3.5 GHz.

Some parties used the term "mid-band" frequency to refer to higher part of this frequency range that was not used in previous generations of mobile communication.

Frequency range 2 (24–54 GHz)

The minimum channel bandwidth defined for FR2 is 50 MHz and the maximum is 400 MHz, with two-channel aggregation supported in 3GPP Release 15. The higher the frequency, the greater the ability to support high data-transfer speeds. Signals in this frequency have been described as mmWave.

FR2 coverage

5G in the 24 GHz range or above use higher frequencies than 4G, and as a result, some 5G signals are not capable of traveling large distances (over a few hundred meters), unlike 4G or lower frequency 5G signals (sub 6 GHz). This requires placing 5G base stations every few hundred meters in order to use higher frequency bands. Also, these higher frequency 5G signals cannot penetrate solid objects easily, such as cars, trees, and walls, because of the nature of these higher frequency electromagnetic waves. 5G cells can be deliberately designed to be as inconspicuous as possible, which finds applications in places like restaurants and shopping malls.[66]

Massive MIMO

See also: Multi-user MIMO

MIMO systems use multiple antennas at the transmitter and receiver ends of a wireless communication system. Multiple antennas use the spatial dimension for multiplexing in addition to the time and frequency ones, without changing the bandwidth requirements of the system.

Massive MIMO (multiple-input and multiple-output) antennas increases sector throughput and capacity density using large numbers of antennas. This includes Single User MIMO and Multi-user MIMO (MU-MIMO). Each antenna is individually-controlled and may embed radio transceiver components.[citation needed]

Edge computing

Main article: Multi-access edge computing

Edge computing is delivered by computing servers closer to the ultimate user. It reduces latency, data traffic congestion[67][68] and can improve service availability.[69]

Small cell

Main article: Small cell

Small cells are low-powered cellular radio access nodes that operate in licensed and unlicensed spectrum that have a range of 10 meters to a few kilometers. Small cells are critical to 5G networks, as 5G's radio waves can't travel long distances, because of 5G's higher frequencies.[70][71][72][73]

Beamforming

Main article: Beamforming

There are two kinds of beamforming: digital and analog. Digital beamforming involves sending the data across multiple streams (layers), while analog beamforming shaping the radio waves to point in a specific direction. The analog BF technique combines the power from elements of the antenna array in such a way that signals at particular angles experience constructive interference, while other signals pointing to other angles experience destructive interference. This improves signal quality in the specific direction, as well as data transfer speeds.[citation needed] 5G uses both digital and analog beamforming to improve the system capacity.[74]

Convergence of Wi-Fi and cellular

One expected benefit of the transition to 5G is the convergence of multiple networking functions to achieve cost, power, and complexity reductions. LTE has targeted convergence with Wi-Fi band/technology via various efforts, such as License Assisted Access (LAA; 5G signal in unlicensed frequency bands that are also used by Wi-Fi) and LTE-WLAN Aggregation (LWA; convergence with Wi-Fi Radio), but the differing capabilities of cellular and Wi-Fi have limited the scope of convergence. However, significant improvement in cellular performance specifications in 5G, combined with migration from Distributed Radio Access Network (D-RAN) to Cloud- or Centralized-RAN (C-RAN) and rollout of cellular small cells can potentially narrow the gap between Wi-Fi and cellular networks in dense and indoor deployments. Radio convergence could result in sharing ranging from the aggregation of cellular and Wi-Fi channels to the use of a single silicon device for multiple radio access technologies.[75]

NOMA (non-orthogonal multiple access)

NOMA (non-orthogonal multiple access) is a proposed multiple-access technique for future cellular systems via allocation of power.[citation needed]

SDN/NFV

Main articles: Software-defined networking, SD-WAN, Network function virtualization, and 5G network slicing

Initially, cellular mobile communications technologies were designed in the context of providing voice services and Internet access. Today a new era of innovative tools and technologies is inclined towards developing a new pool of applications. This pool of applications consists of different domains such as the Internet of Things (IoT), web of connected autonomous vehicles, remotely controlled robots, and heterogeneous sensors connected to serve versatile applications.[76] In this context, network slicing has emerged as a key technology to efficiently embrace this new market model.[77]

Channel coding

The channel coding techniques for 5G NR have changed from Turbo codes in 4G to polar codes for the control channels and LDPC (low-density parity check codes) for the data channels.[78][79]

Operation in unlicensed spectrum

In December 2018, 3GPP began working on unlicensed spectrum specifications known as 5G NR-U, targeting 3GPP Release 16.[80] Qualcomm has made a similar proposal for LTE in unlicensed spectrum.

5G-Advanced is a name for 3GPP release 18, which as of 2021[update] is under conceptual development.[81][82][83]

See also: Concerns over Chinese involvement in 5G wireless networks and Criticism of Huawei § Espionage and security concerns

A report published by the European Commission and European Agency for Cybersecurity details the security issues surrounding 5G. The report warns against using a single supplier for a carrier's 5G infrastructure, especially those based outside the European Union. (Nokia and Ericsson are the only European manufacturers of 5G equipment.)[84]

On October 18, 2018, a team of researchers from ETH Zurich, the University of Lorraine and the University of Dundee released a paper entitled, "A Formal Analysis of 5G Authentication".[85][86] It alerted that 5G technology could open ground for a new era of security threats. The paper described the technology as "immature and insufficiently tested," and one that "enables the movement and access of vastly higher quantities of data, and thus broadens attack surfaces". Simultaneously, network security companies such as Fortinet,[87] Arbor Networks,[88] A10 Networks,[89] and Voxility[90] advised on personalized and mixed security deployments against massive DDoS attacks foreseen after 5G deployment.

IoT Analytics estimated an increase in the number of IoT devices, enabled by 5G technology, from 7 billion in 2018 to 21.5 billion by 2025.[91] This can raise the attack surface for these devices to a substantial scale, and the capacity for DDoS attacks, cryptojacking, and other cyberattacks could boost proportionally.[86]

Due to fears of potential espionage of users of Chinese equipment vendors, several countries (including the United States, Australia and the United Kingdom as of early 2019)[92] have taken actions to restrict or eliminate the use of Chinese equipment in their respective 5G networks. Chinese vendors and the Chinese government have denied claims of espionage.[clarification needed] On 7 October 2020, the UK Parliament's Defence Committee released a report claiming that there was clear evidence of collusion between Huawei and Chinese state and the Chinese Communist Party. The UK Parliament's Defence Committee said that the government should consider removal of all Huawei equipment from its 5G networks earlier than planned.[93]

Electromagnetic interference

Weather forecasting

The spectrum used by various 5G proposals, especially the n258 band centered at 26 GHz, will be near that of passive remote sensing such as by weather and Earth observation satellites, particularly for water vapor monitoring at 23.8 GHz.[94] Interference is expected to occur due to such proximity and its effect could be significant without effective controls. An increase in interference already occurred with some other prior proximate band usages.[95][96] Interference to satellite operations impairs numerical weather prediction performance with substantially deleterious economic and public safety impacts in areas such as commercial aviation.[97][98]

The concerns prompted U.S. Secretary of Commerce Wilbur Ross and NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine in February 2019 to urge the FCC to delay some spectrum auction proposals, which was rejected.[99] The chairs of the House Appropriations Committee and House Science Committee wrote separate letters to FCC chairman Ajit Pai asking for further review and consultation with NOAA, NASA, and DoD, and warning of harmful impacts to national security.[100] Acting NOAA director Neil Jacobs testified before the House Committee in May 2019 that 5G out-of-band emissions could produce a 30% reduction in weather forecast accuracy and that the resulting degradation in ECMWF model performance would have resulted in failure to predict the track and thus the impact of Superstorm Sandy in 2012. The United States Navy in March 2019 wrote a memorandum warning of deterioration and made technical suggestions to control band bleed-over limits, for testing and fielding, and for coordination of the wireless industry and regulators with weather forecasting organizations.[101]

At the 2019 quadrennial World Radiocommunication Conference (WRC), atmospheric scientists advocated for a strong buffer of −55 dBW, European regulators agreed on a recommendation of −42 dBW, and US regulators (the FCC) recommended a restriction of −20 dBW, which would permit signals 150 times stronger than the European proposal. The ITU decided on an intermediate −33 dBW until September 1, 2027, and after that a standard of −39 dBW.[102] This is closer to the European recommendation but even the delayed higher standard is much weaker than that pleaded for by atmospheric scientists, triggering warnings from the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) that the ITU standard, at 10 times less stringent than its recommendation, brings the "potential to significantly degrade the accuracy of data collected".[103] A representative of the American Meteorological Society (AMS) also warned of interference,[104] and the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF), sternly warned, saying that society risks "history repeat[ing] itself" by ignoring atmospheric scientists' warnings (referencing global warming, monitoring of which could be imperiled).[105] In December 2019, a bipartisan request was sent from the US House Science Committee to the Government Accountability Office (GAO) to investigate why there is such a discrepancy between recommendations of US civilian and military science agencies and the regulator, the FCC.[106]

Aviation

The United States FAA has warned that radar altimeters on aircraft, which operate between 4.2 and 4.4 GHz, might be affected by 5G operations between 3.7 and 3.98 GHz. This is particularly an issue with older altimeters using RF filters[107] which lack protection from neighboring bands.[108] This is not as much of an issue in Europe, where 5G uses lower frequencies between 3.4 and 3.8 GHz.[109] Nonetheless, the DGAC in France has also expressed similar worries and recommended 5G phones be turned off or be put in airplane mode during flights.[110]

On December 31, 2021, U.S. Transportation Secretary Pete Buttigieg and Steve Dickinson, administrator of the Federal Aviation Administration asked the chief executives of AT&T and Verizon to delay 5G implementation over aviation concerns. The government officials asked for a two-week delay starting on January 5, 2022, while investigations are conducted on the effects on radar altimeters. The government transportation officials also asked the cellular providers to hold off their new 5G service near 50 priority airports, to minimize disruption to air traffic that would be caused by some planes being disallowed from landing in poor visibility.[111] After coming to an agreement with government officials the day before,[112] Verizon and AT&T activated their 5G networks on January 19, 2022, except for certain towers near 50 airports.[113] AT&T scaled back its deployment even further than its agreement with the FAA required.[114]

The FAA rushed to test and certify radar altimeters for interference so that planes could be allowed to perform instrument landings (e.g. at night and in low visibility) at affected airports. By January 16, it had certified equipment on 45% of the U.S. fleet, and 78% by January 20.[115] Airlines complained about the avoidable impact on their operations, and commentators said the affair called into question the competence of the FAA.[116] Several international airlines substituted different planes so they could avoid problems landing at scheduled airports, and about 2% of flights (320) were cancelled by the evening of January 19.[117]

Further information: C band (IEEE)

Satellite

A number of 5G networks deployed on the radio frequency band of 3.3–3.6 GHz is expected to cause interference with C-Band satellite stations, which operate by receiving satellite signals at 3.4–4.2 GHz frequency.[118] This interference can be mitigated with low-noise block downconverters and waveguide filters.[118]

Wi-Fi

In regions like the US and EU, the 6 GHz band is to be opened up for unlicensed applications, which would permit the deployment of 5G-NR Unlicensed, 5G version of LTE in unlicensed spectrum, as well as Wi-Fi 6e. However, interference could occur with the co-existence of different standards in the frequency band.[119]

Overhype

There have been concerns surrounding the promotion of 5G, questioning whether the technology is overhyped. There are questions on whether 5G will truly change the customer experience,[120] ability for 5G's mmWave signal to provide significant coverage,[121][122] overstating what 5G can achieve or misattributing continuous technological improvement to "5G",[123] lack of new use case for carriers to profit from,[124] wrong focus on emphasizing direct benefits on individual consumers instead of for internet of things devices or solving the Last mile problem,[125] and overshadowing the possibility that in some aspects there might be other more appropriate technologies.[126] Such sort of concerns have also lead to consumers not trusting information provided by cellular providers on the topic.[127]

Main article: Misinformation related to 5G technology

See also: Wireless device radiation and health

There is a long history of fear and anxiety surrounding wireless signals that predates 5G technology. The fears about 5G are similar to those that have persisted throughout the 1990s and 2000s. They center on fringe claims that non-ionizing radiation poses dangers to human health.[128] Unlike ionizing radiation, non-ionizing radiation cannot remove electrons from atoms. The CDC says "Exposure to intense, direct amounts of non-ionizing radiation may result in damage to tissue due to heat. This is not common and mainly of concern in the workplace for those who work on large sources of non-ionizing radiation devices and instruments."[129] Some advocates of fringe health claim the regulatory standards are too low and influenced by lobbying groups.[128]

Many popular books of dubious merit have been published on the subject including one by Joseph Mercola alleging that wireless technologies caused numerous conditions from ADHD to heart diseases and brain cancer. Mercola has drawn sharp criticism for his anti-vaccinationism during the COVID-19 pandemic and was warned by the FDA to stop selling fake COVID-19 cures through his online alternative medicine business.[128][130]

According to the New York Times, one origin of the 5G health controversy was an erroneous unpublished study that physicist Bill P. Curry did for the Broward County School Board in 2000 which indicated that the absorption of external microwaves by brain tissue increased with frequency.[131] According to experts this was wrong, the millimeter waves used in 5G are safer than lower frequency microwaves because they cannot penetrate the skin and reach internal organs. Curry had confused in vitro and in vivo research. However Curry's study was widely distributed on the internet. Writing in The New York Times in 2019, William Broad reported that RT America began airing programming linking 5G to harmful health effects which "lack scientific support", such as "brain cancer, infertility, autism, heart tumors, and Alzheimer's disease". Broad asserted that the claims had increased. RT America had run seven programs on this theme by mid-April 2019 but only one in the whole of 2018. The network's coverage had spread to hundreds of blogs and websites.[132]

In April 2019, the city of Brussels in Belgium blocked a 5G trial because of radiation rules.[133] In Geneva, Switzerland, a planned upgrade to 5G was stopped for the same reason.[134] The Swiss Telecommunications Association (ASUT) has said that studies have been unable to show that 5G frequencies have any health impact.[135]

According to CNET,[136] "Members of Parliament in the Netherlands are also calling on the government to take a closer look at 5G. Several leaders in the United States Congress have written to the Federal Communications Commission expressing concern about potential health risks. In Mill Valley, California, the city council blocked the deployment of new 5G wireless cells."[136][137][138][139][140] Similar concerns were raised in Vermont[141] and New Hampshire.[136] The US FDA is quoted saying that it "continues to believe that the current safety limits for cellphone radiofrequency energy exposure remain acceptable for protecting the public health."[142] After campaigning by activist groups, a series of small localities in the UK, including Totnes, Brighton and Hove, Glastonbury, and Frome, passed resolutions against the implementation of further 5G infrastructure, though these resolutions have no impact on rollout plans.[143][144][145]

COVID-19 conspiracy theories and arson attacks

Main article: COVID-19 misinformation § 5G mobile-phone networks

As the introduction of 5G technology coincided with the time of COVID-19 pandemic, several conspiracy theories circulating online posited a link between COVID-19 and 5G.[146] This has led to dozens of arson attacks being made on telecom masts in the Netherlands (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, etc.), Ireland (Cork,[147] etc.), Cyprus, the United Kingdom (Dagenham, Huddersfield, Birmingham, Belfast and Liverpool[148][149]), Belgium (Pelt), Italy (Maddaloni), Croatia (Bibinje[150]) and Sweden.[151] It led to at least 61 suspected arson attacks against telephone masts in the United Kingdom alone[152] and over twenty in The Netherlands.

In the early months of the pandemic anti-lockdown protesters at protests over responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia were seen with anti-5G signs, an early sign of what became a wider campaign by conspiracy theorists to link the pandemic with 5G technology. There are two versions of the 5G-COVID-19 conspiracy theory:[128]

1. The first version claims that radiation weakens the immune system, making the body more vulnerable to SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID-19).
2. The second version claims that 5G causes COVID-19. There are different variations on this. Some claim that the pandemic is coverup of illness caused by 5G radiation or that COVID-19 originated in Wuhan because that city was "the guinea-pig city for 5G".

Main articles: 5G Evolution, LTE Advanced Pro, and LTE Advanced

In various parts of the world, carriers have launched numerous differently branded technologies, such as "5G Evolution", which advertise improving existing networks with the use of "5G technology".[153] However, these pre-5G networks are an improvement on specifications of existing LTE networks that are not exclusive to 5G. While the technology promises to deliver higher speeds, and is described by AT&T as a "foundation for our evolution to 5G while the 5G standards are being finalized," it cannot be considered to be true 5G. When AT&T announced 5G Evolution, 4x4 MIMO, the technology that AT&T is using to deliver the higher speeds, had already been put in place by T-Mobile without being branded with the 5G moniker. It is claimed that such branding is a marketing move that will cause confusion with consumers, as it is not made clear that such improvements are not true 5G.[154]

• In April 2008, NASA partnered with Geoff Brown and Machine-to-Machine Intelligence (M2Mi) Corp to develop a fifth generation communications technology approach, though largely concerned with working with nanosats.[155]
• In 2008, the South Korean IT R&D program of "5G mobile communication systems based on beam-division multiple access and relays with group cooperation" was formed.[156]
• In August 2012, New York University founded NYU Wireless, a multi-disciplinary academic research centre that has conducted pioneering work in 5G wireless communications.[157]
• On October 8, 2012, the UK's University of Surrey secured £35M for a new 5G research centre, jointly funded by the British government's UK Research Partnership Investment Fund (UKRPIF) and a consortium of key international mobile operators and infrastructure providers, including Huawei, Samsung, Telefónica Europe, Fujitsu Laboratories Europe, Rohde & Schwarz, and Aircom International. It will offer testing facilities to mobile operators keen to develop a mobile standard that uses less energy and less radio spectrum, while delivering speeds higher than current 4G with aspirations for the new technology to be ready within a decade.[158][159][160][161]
• On November 1, 2012, the EU project "Mobile and wireless communications Enablers for the Twenty-twenty Information Society" (METIS) starts its activity toward the definition of 5G. METIS achieved an early global consensus on these systems. In this sense, METIS played an important role of building consensus among other external major stakeholders prior to global standardization activities. This was done by initiating and addressing work in relevant global fora (e.g. ITU-R), as well as in national and regional regulatory bodies.[162]
• Also in November 2012, the iJOIN EU project was launched, focusing on "small cell" technology, which is of key importance for taking advantage of limited and strategic resources, such as the radio wave spectrum. According to Günther Oettinger, the European Commissioner for Digital Economy and Society (2014–2019), "an innovative utilization of spectrum" is one of the key factors at the heart of 5G success. Oettinger further described it as "the essential resource for the wireless connectivity of which 5G will be the main driver".[163] iJOIN was selected by the European Commission as one of the pioneering 5G research projects to showcase early results on this technology at the Mobile World Congress 2015 (Barcelona, Spain).
• In February 2013, ITU-R Working Party 5D (WP 5D) started two study items: (1) Study on IMT Vision for 2020 and beyond, and; (2) Study on future technology trends for terrestrial IMT systems. Both aiming at having a better understanding of future technical aspects of mobile communications toward the definition of the next generation mobile.[164]
• On May 12, 2013, Samsung Electronics stated that they had developed a "5G" system. The core technology has a maximum speed of tens of Gbit/s (gigabits per second). In testing, the transfer speeds for the "5G" network sent data at 1.056 Gbit/s to a distance of up to 2 kilometers with the use of an 8*8 MIMO.[165][166]
• In July 2013, India and Israel agreed to work jointly on development of fifth generation (5G) telecom technologies.[167]
• On October 1, 2013, NTT (Nippon Telegraph and Telephone), the same company to launch world's first 5G network in Japan, wins Minister of Internal Affairs and Communications Award at CEATEC for 5G R&D efforts.[168]
• On November 6, 2013, Huawei announced plans to invest a minimum of $600 million into R&D for next generation 5G networks capable of speeds 100 times higher than modern LTE networks.[169]
• On April 3, 2019, South Korea became the first country to adopt 5G.[170] Just hours later, Verizon launched its 5G services in the United States, and disputed South Korea's claim of becoming the world's first country with a 5G network, because allegedly, South Korea's 5G service was launched initially for just six South Korean celebrities so that South Korea could claim the title of having the world's first 5G network.[171] In fact, the three main South Korean telecommunication companies (SK Telecom, KT, and LG Uplus) added more than 40,000 users to their 5G network on the launch day.[172]
• In June 2019, the Philippines became the first country in Southeast Asia to roll out a 5G network after Globe Telecom commercially launched its 5G data plans to customers.[173]
• AT&T brings 5G service to consumers and businesses in December 2019 ahead of plans to offer 5G throughout the United States in the first half of 2020.[174][175]

5G Automotive Association have been promoting the C-V2X communication technology that will first be deployed in 4G. It provides for communication between vehicles and infrastructures.[176]

Digital Twins

A real time digital twin of the real object such as a turbine engine, aircraft, wind turbines, offshore platform and pipelines. 5G networks helps[177] in building it due to the latency and throughput to capture near real-time IoT data and support digital twins.[178]

Public safety

Mission-critical push-to-talk (MCPTT) and mission-critical video and data are expected to be furthered in 5G.[179]

Fixed wireless

Fixed wireless connections will offer an alternative to fixed line broadband (ADSL, VDSL, Fiber optic, and DOCSIS connections) in some locations.[180][181][182]

Wireless video transmission for broadcast applications

Sony has tested the possibility of using local 5G networks to replace the SDI cables currently used in broadcast camcorders.[183]

The 5G Broadcast tests started around 2020 (Orkneys, Bavaria, Austria, Central Bohemia) based on FeMBMS (Further evolved multimedia broadcast multicast service).[184] The aim is to serve unlimited number of mobile or fixed devices with video (TV) and audio (radio) streams without these consuming any data flow or even being authenticated in a network.

• 1G
• 2G
• 3G
• 4G
• 5G wireless power
• 6G
• Wireless device radiation and health

1. ^ "Positive 5G Outlook Post COVID-19: What Does It Mean for Avid Gamers?". Forest Interactive. Retrieved November 13, 2020.
2. ^ "Market share of mobile telecommunication technologies worldwide from 2016 to 2025, by generation". Statista. February 2022.
3. ^ Hoffman, Chris (January 7, 2019). "What is 5G, and how fast will it be?". How-To Geek website. How-To Geek LLC. Archived from the original on January 24, 2019. Retrieved January 23, 2019.
4. ^ "5G explained: What it is, who has 5G, and how much faster is it really?". www.cnn.com. Retrieved November 27, 2021.
5. ^ a b Horwitz, Jeremy (December 10, 2019). "The definitive guide to 5G low, mid, and high band speeds". VentureBeat online magazine. Retrieved April 23, 2020.
6. ^ Davies, Darrell (May 20, 2019). "Small Cells – Big in 5G". Nokia. Retrieved August 29, 2020.
7. ^ E.J. Violette; R.H. Espeland; R.O. DeBolt; F.K. Schwering (May 1988). "Millimeter-wave propagation at street level in an urban environment". IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing. IEEE. 26 (3): 368–380. Bibcode:1988ITGRS..26..368V. doi:10.1109/36.3038. Retrieved March 19, 2021. For non-line-of-sight (non-LOS) paths obstructed by buildings of several common materials, results that showed signal attenuations in excess of 100 dB. When the LOS followed a path directly through clear glass walls, the attenuation was small at all probe frequencies. However, when the glass wall had a metalized coating to reduce ultraviolet and infrared radiation, the attenuation increased by 25 to 50 dB for each metallized layer. In most cases no signals could be detected through steel reinforced concrete or brick buildings.
8. ^ "5G – It's Not Here Yet, But Closer Than You Think". October 31, 2017. Archived from the original on January 6, 2019. Retrieved January 6, 2019.
9. ^ "Managing the Future of Cellular" (PDF). March 20, 2020. Retrieved September 24, 2020.
10. ^ Yu, Heejung; Lee, Howon; Jeon, Hongbeom (October 2017). "What is 5G? Emerging 5G Mobile Services and Network Requirements". Sustainability. 9 (10): 1848. doi:10.3390/su9101848.
11. ^ a b "Intel Accelerates the Future with World's First Global 5G Modem". Intel Newsroom. Archived from the original on September 6, 2018. Retrieved November 21, 2019.
12. ^ "Ford: Self-driving cars "will be fully capable of operating without C-V2X"". wirelessone.news. Retrieved December 1, 2019.
13. ^ "5GAA Tele-Operated Driving (ToD): Use Cases and Technical Requirements Technical Requirements" (PDF). 5G Automotive Association. Retrieved February 8, 2021.
14. ^ "Smooth teleoperator: The rise of the remote controller". VentureBeat. August 17, 2020. Retrieved February 8, 2021.
15. ^ "Visible, US Mobile Also Get Verizon's New 5G System". PCMAG. Retrieved January 10, 2022.
16. ^ Lawler, Richard (January 3, 2022). "Verizon and AT&T cut a deal with the FAA, will hit the brakes on 5G C-band rollouts". The Verge. Retrieved January 10, 2022.
17. ^ "Minimum requirements related to technical performance for IMT-2020 radio interface(s)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on January 8, 2019. Retrieved August 16, 2019.
18. ^ "The first real 5G specification has officially been completed". The Verge. Archived from the original on January 7, 2019. Retrieved June 25, 2018.
19. ^ Flynn, Kevin. "Workshop on 3GPP submission towards IMT-2020". 3gpp.org. Archived from the original on January 7, 2019. Retrieved January 6, 2019.
20. ^ Dave. "5G NR Only 25% to 50% Faster, Not Truly a New Generation". wirelessone.news. Archived from the original on June 20, 2018. Retrieved June 25, 2018.
21. ^ "Factcheck: Large increase of capacity going from LTE to 5G low and mid-band". wirelessone.news. Archived from the original on January 3, 2019. Retrieved January 3, 2019.
22. ^ Teral, Stephane (January 30, 2019). "5G best choice architecture" (PDF). ZTE. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 2, 2019. Retrieved February 1, 2019.
23. ^ "Specification Numbering". 3GPP.
24. ^ "3GPP Specification Status Report". 3GPP.
25. ^ "ETSI TS 123 501 V16.12.0 (2022-03). 5G; System architecture for the 5G System (5GS) (3GPP TS 23.501 version 16.12.0 Release 16)" (PDF). ETSI and 3GPP. (TS 23.501)
26. ^ "Non-Access-Stratum (NAS) protocol for 5G System (5GS); Stage 3. (3GPP TS 24.501 version 16.10.0 Release 16) TS 24.501 release 16.10.0" (PDF). ETSI and 3GPP. (TS 24.501)
27. ^ "Digital cellular telecommunications system (Phase 2+) (GSM); Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS); LTE; 5G; Numbering, addressing and identification (3GPP TS 23.003 version 16.8.0 Release 16)" (PDF). ETSI and 3GPP. (TS 23.003)
28. ^ "What is 5G New Radio (5G NR)". 5g.co.uk. Archived from the original on November 8, 2018. Retrieved November 8, 2018.
29. ^ "Making 5G New Radio (NR) a Reality – The Global 5G Standard – IEEE Communications Society". comsoc.org. Archived from the original on November 8, 2018. Retrieved January 6, 2019.
30. ^ Kastrenakes, Jacob (October 2, 2018). "Is Verizon's 5G home internet real 5G?". The Verge. Archived from the original on October 7, 2019. Retrieved October 7, 2019.
31. ^ "Mobile industry eyes 5G devices in early 2019". telecomasia.net. Archived from the original on January 6, 2019. Retrieved January 6, 2019.
32. ^ "With LTE-M and NB-IoT You're Already on the Path to 5G". sierrawireless.com. Archived from the original on January 6, 2019. Retrieved January 6, 2019.
33. ^ "NR-U Transforming 5G - Qualcomm Presentation". GSA.
34. ^ "[ケータイ用語の基礎知識]第941回：NSA・SA方式とは". ケータイ Watch. February 19, 2020.
35. ^ "LTE and 5G Market Statistics". GSA. April 8, 2019. Retrieved April 24, 2019.
36. ^ "5G Investments: Trials, Deployments, Launches". GSA. Archived from the original on April 2, 2019.
37. ^ "5G coverage will span two thirds of the global population in 6 years, Ericsson predicts". CNBC. November 25, 2019. Archived from the original on November 29, 2019. Retrieved November 29, 2019.
38. ^ Mello, Gabriela (November 25, 2019). "Ericsson to invest over $230 million in Brazil to build new 5G assembly line".
39. ^ "Telecom's 5G revolution triggers shakeup in base station market". Nikkei Asian Review. Archived from the original on April 21, 2019. Retrieved April 21, 2019.
40. ^ "Samsung Electronics supplies 53,000 5G base stations for Korean carriers". RCR Wireless News. April 10, 2019. Archived from the original on April 12, 2019. Retrieved April 13, 2019.
41. ^ "삼성 5G기지국 5만3000개 깔았다…화웨이 5배 '압도'". 아시아경제. April 10, 2019.
42. ^ "Samsung dominates Korea 5G deployments". Mobile World Live. April 10, 2019. Archived from the original on April 10, 2019. Retrieved April 11, 2019.
43. ^ "Fast but patchy: Trying South Korea's new 5G service". Nikkei Asian Review. Archived from the original on April 12, 2019. Retrieved April 11, 2019.
44. ^ "Korea 5G Falls by Half. Miracle Over?". wirelessone.news. Retrieved March 27, 2020.
45. ^ "T‑Mobile Launches World's First Nationwide Standalone 5G Network". T-Mobile Newsroom. Retrieved January 30, 2022.
46. ^ "Japan allocates 5G spectrum, excludes Chinese equipment vendors". South China Morning Post. April 11, 2019. Archived from the original on April 12, 2019. Retrieved April 15, 2019.
47. ^ "Huawei Launches Full Range of 5G End-to-End Product Solutions". huawei. Archived from the original on April 13, 2019. Retrieved April 13, 2019.
48. ^ "Japan allocates 5G spectrum to carriers, blocks Huawei and ZTE gear". VentureBeat. April 10, 2019. Archived from the original on April 13, 2019. Retrieved April 13, 2019.
49. ^ "Samsung signals big 5G equipment push, again, at factory". January 4, 2019. Archived from the original on April 13, 2019. Retrieved April 13, 2019.
50. ^ "Nokia says it is the one-stop shop for 5G network gear | TechRadar". techradar.com. February 26, 2019. Archived from the original on April 13, 2019. Retrieved April 13, 2019.
51. ^ "5G radio – Ericsson". Ericsson.com. February 6, 2018. Archived from the original on April 13, 2019. Retrieved April 13, 2019.
52. ^ Riccardo Barlaam (February 21, 2019). "5G, gli Stati Uniti hanno la risposta per resistere all'avanzata cinese". Il Sole 24 Ore (in Italian). Archived from the original on July 25, 2019. Retrieved July 24, 2019.
53. ^ "5G Spectrum Recommendations" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on December 23, 2018. Retrieved October 7, 2019.
54. ^ "FCC Spectrum Frontier Proposal". NYU Wireless. July 15, 2016. Archived from the original on May 26, 2017. Retrieved May 18, 2017.
55. ^ Foo Yun Chee (March 3, 2018). "EU countries, lawmakers strike deal to open up spectrum for 5G". Reuters. Archived from the original on January 7, 2019. Retrieved March 3, 2018.
56. ^ "Spectrum for Terrestrial 5G Networks: Licensing Developments Worldwide". GSA. March 2019. Archived from the original on April 2, 2019.
57. ^ "GSA launches first global database of commercial 5G devices". Total Telecom. Archived from the original on April 2, 2019.
58. ^ "5G Device Ecosystem Report". GSA. Archived from the original on April 2, 2019.
59. ^ "5G Devices: Ecosystem Report". GSA. September 2019. Archived from the original on October 13, 2019.
60. ^ "LTE, 5G and 3GPP IoT Chipsets: Status Update". GSA. April 2019. Retrieved April 24, 2019.
61. ^ "5G is making the smartphones we love more expensive than ever". Business Insider. March 14, 2020. Retrieved March 16, 2020.
62. ^ Collins, Katie (March 19, 2020). "The Nokia 8.3 is the 'first global 5G phone.' Here's what that means for you". CNET. Retrieved March 19, 2020.
63. ^ "What consumers need to know about this week's AT&T-Verizon 5G rollout". CBS News.
64. ^ "iPhone 12 and 5G: All the answers to your questions about the super-fast connectivity". CNET.
65. ^ "Google Pixel 5a 5G". GSMArena.
66. ^ "5G speed vs 5G range-What is the value of 5G speed,5G range". rfwireless-world.com. Archived from the original on April 21, 2019. Retrieved April 21, 2019.
67. ^ "IT Needs to Start Thinking About 5G and Edge Cloud Computing". February 7, 2018. Archived from the original on June 12, 2018. Retrieved June 8, 2018.
68. ^ "Mobile Edge Computing – An Important Ingredient of 5G Networks". IEEE Softwarization. March 2016. Archived from the original on February 24, 2019. Retrieved February 24, 2019.
69. ^ Brand, Aron (September 20, 2019). "3 Advantages of Edge Computing". medium.com. Retrieved September 20, 2019.
70. ^ "Scenarios and requirements for small cell enhancements for E-UTRA and E-UTRAN (3GPP TR 36.932 version 16.0.0 Release 16)" (PDF). ETSI and 3GPP. (TR 36.932)
71. ^ "5G small cells: everything you need to know". 5gradar.com.
72. ^ "Small Cells – Big in 5G". Nokia.
73. ^ "Small Cell". Ericsson.
74. ^ "What is 5G Beamforming?". Verizon Enterprise. Retrieved September 6, 2022.
75. ^ "Article - 5G ! Solwise Ltd".
76. ^ "WS-21: SDN5GSC – Software Defined Networking for 5G Architecture in Smart Communities". IEEE Global Communications Conference. May 17, 2018. Archived from the original on March 8, 2019. Retrieved March 7, 2019.
77. ^ Ordonez-Lucena, J.; Ameigeiras, P.; Lopez, D.; Ramos-Munoz, J. J.; Lorca, J.; Folgueira, J. (2017). "Network Slicing for 5G with SDN/NFV: Concepts, Architectures, and Challenges". IEEE Communications Magazine. 55 (5): 80–87. arXiv:1703.04676. Bibcode:2017arXiv170304676O. doi:10.1109/MCOM.2017.1600935. hdl:10481/45368. ISSN 0163-6804. S2CID 206456434.
78. ^ "5G Channel Coding" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on December 6, 2018. Retrieved January 6, 2019.
79. ^ Maunder, Robert (September 2016). "A Vision for 5G Channel Coding" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on December 6, 2018. Retrieved January 6, 2019.
80. ^ "5G NR 3GPP | 5G NR Qualcomm". Qualcomm. December 12, 2018. Archived from the original on April 22, 2019. Retrieved April 15, 2019.
81. ^ "Release 18". www.3gpp.org. Retrieved November 25, 2021.
82. ^ "5G-Advanced's system architecture begins taking shape at 3GPP". Nokia. Retrieved November 25, 2021.
83. ^ "Four ways 5G-Advanced will transform our industry". Nokia. Retrieved November 26, 2021.
84. ^ Duckett, Chris (October 10, 2019). "Europe warns 5G will increase attack paths for state actors". ZDNet.
85. ^ Basin, David; Dreier, Jannik; Hirschi, Lucca; Radomirovic, Saša; Sasse, Ralf; Stettler, Vincent (2018). "A Formal Analysis of 5G Authentication". Proceedings of the 2018 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security – CCS '18. pp. 1383–1396. arXiv:1806.10360. doi:10.1145/3243734.3243846. ISBN 9781450356930. S2CID 49480110.
86. ^ a b "How to Prepare for the Coming 5G Security Threats". Security Intelligence. November 26, 2018. Archived from the original on July 22, 2019. Retrieved July 22, 2019.
87. ^ Maddison, John (February 19, 2019). "Addressing New Security Challenges with 5G". CSO Online. Archived from the original on July 22, 2019. Retrieved July 22, 2019.
88. ^ "NETSCOUT Predicts: 5G Trends for 2019". NETSCOUT. Archived from the original on July 22, 2019. Retrieved July 22, 2019.
89. ^ "The Urgency of Network Security in the Shared LTE/5G Era". A10 Networks. June 19, 2019. Archived from the original on July 22, 2019. Retrieved July 22, 2019.
90. ^ "Security concerns in a 5G era: are networks ready for massive DDoS attacks?". scmagazineuk.com. Retrieved July 22, 2019.
91. ^ "State of the IoT 2018: Number of IoT devices now at 7B – Market accelerating". August 8, 2018. Archived from the original on July 24, 2019. Retrieved July 22, 2019.
92. ^ Proctor, Jason (April 29, 2019). "Why Canada's decisions on who builds 5G technology are so important". CBC News. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on July 22, 2019. Retrieved July 31, 2019.
93. ^ Corera, Gordon (October 7, 2020). "Huawei: MPs claim 'clear evidence of collusion' with Chinese Communist Party". BBC News. Archived from the original on October 14, 2020. Retrieved October 7, 2020.
94. ^ "What's needed to keep 5G from compromising weather forecasts". GCN. September 29, 2020.
95. ^ Misra, Sidharth (January 10, 2019). "The Wizard Behind the Curtain? – The Important, Diverse, and Often Hidden Role of Spectrum Allocation for Current and Future Environmental Satellites and Water, Weather, and Climate". 15th Annual Symposium on New Generation Operational Environmental Satellite Systems. Phoenix, AZ: American Meteorological Society. Archived from the original on May 5, 2019. Retrieved May 5, 2019.
96. ^ Lubar, David G. (January 9, 2019). "A Myriad of Proposed Radio Spectrum Changes – Collectively Can They Impact Operational Meteorology?". 15th Annual Symposium on New Generation Operational Environmental Satellite Systems. Phoenix, AZ: American Meteorological Society. Archived from the original on May 5, 2019. Retrieved May 5, 2019.
97. ^ Witze, Alexandra (April 26, 2019). "Global 5G wireless networks threaten weather forecasts". Nature. 569 (7754): 17–18. Bibcode:2019Natur.569...17W. doi:10.1038/d41586-019-01305-4. PMID 31040411. S2CID 140396172.
98. ^ Brackett, Ron (May 1, 2019). "5G Wireless Networks Could Interfere with Weather Forecasts, Meteorologists Warn". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on May 5, 2019.
99. ^ Samenow, Jason (March 8, 2019). "Critical weather data threatened by FCC 'spectrum' proposal, Commerce Dept. and NASA say". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on March 31, 2019. Retrieved May 5, 2019.
100. ^ Samenow, Jason (March 13, 2019). "FCC to auction off wireless spectrum that could interfere with vital weather data, rejecting requests from U.S. House and science agencies". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on May 9, 2019. Retrieved May 29, 2019.
101. ^ Paul, Don (May 27, 2019). "Some worry 5G may pose huge problems for weather forecasting". The Buffalo Post. Archived from the original on May 30, 2019. Retrieved May 29, 2019.
102. ^ Witze, Alexandra (November 22, 2019). "Global 5G wireless deal threatens weather forecasts". Nature. 575 (7784): 577. Bibcode:2019Natur.575..577W. doi:10.1038/d41586-019-03609-x. PMID 31772363. S2CID 208302844.
103. ^ "WMO expresses concern about radio frequency decision" (Press release). Geneva, Switzerland: World Meteorological Organization. November 27, 2019.
104. ^ Freedman, Andrew (November 26, 2019). "Global 5G deal poses significant threat to weather forecast accuracy, experts warn". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on November 27, 2019. Retrieved December 1, 2019.
105. ^ "ECMWF statement on the outcomes of the ITU WRC-2019 conference" (Press release). Reading, UK: European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts. November 25, 2019.
106. ^ Freedman, Andrew (December 11, 2019). "'We are deeply concerned': House Science Committee seeks investigation of how 5G could hurt weather forecasting". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on December 12, 2019. Retrieved December 12, 2019.
107. ^ "5G altimeter interference: aviation versus telecoms". 5G Technology World. December 23, 2021. Retrieved January 19, 2022.
108. ^ "U.S. FAA Issues Safety Alert on 5G Interference to Aircraft". Bloomberg News. November 2, 2021.
109. ^ "Europe rolled out 5G without hurting aviation. Here's how". CNN.
110. ^ "5G phones may interfere with aircraft: French regulator". France 24. February 16, 2021.
111. ^ Shields, Todd; Levin, Allan (December 31, 2021). "Buttigieg Asks AT&T, Verizon to Delay 5G Over Aviation Concerns". Bloomberg News. Retrieved January 2, 2022.
112. ^ "Wireless carriers to limit 5G near airports after airlines warn of major disruptions". Washington Post. January 18, 2022.
113. ^ "Verizon 5G Gets Activated Despite Warnings About Airport Problems; AT&T 5G Follows Suit". TechTimes. January 19, 2022.
114. ^ "AT&T and Verizon are limiting C-band 5G expansion around airports even more". The Verge. January 18, 2022.
115. ^ Federal Aviation Administration (January 21, 2022). "5G and Aviation Safety".
116. ^ Von Drehle, David (January 18, 2022). "Opinion: The FAA's 5G freakout raises a big red flag — about its competence". Washington Post.
117. ^ "Airlines cancel some flights after reduced 5G rollout in US". MSN.
118. ^ a b "SatMagazine". www.satmagazine.com.
119. ^ Naik, Gaurang; Park, Jung-Min; Ashdown, Jonathan; Lehr, William (December 15, 2020). "Next Generation Wi-Fi and 5G NR-U in the 6 GHz Bands: Opportunities and Challenges". IEEE Access. 8: 153027–56. arXiv:2006.16534. doi:10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3016036. S2CID 220265664 – via IEEE Xplore.
120. ^ Johnson, Allison (April 29, 2021). "Dear wireless carriers: the 5G hype needs to stop". The Verge.
121. ^ Morris, Iain (February 28, 2017). "Vodafone CTO 'Worried' About 5G mmWave Hype". Light Reading.
122. ^ Chamberlain, Kendra (April 22, 2019). "T-Mobile says 5G mmWave deployments 'will never materially scale'". Fierce Wireless.
123. ^ Blackman, James (December 5, 2019). "Why the 5G revolution is over-hyped nonsense – in every respect except one". Enterprise IoT Insights.
124. ^ "Cutting through the 5G hype | McKinsey". mckinsey.com.
125. ^ "Expert Round Up: Is 5G Worth All the Hype? – GeoLinks.com". February 21, 2019.
126. ^ "5G isn't for everyone: How Alternate IoT Solutions come into play | Industrial Ethernet Book". iebmedia.com.
127. ^ "Consumers Want to Cut Through the Hype About 5G". PCMAG.
128. ^ a b c d Meese, James; Frith, Jordan; Wilken, Rowan (2020). "COVID-19, 5G conspiracies and infrastructural futures". Media International Australia. 177 (1): 30–46. doi:10.1177/1329878X20952165. PMC 7506181.
129. ^ "The Electromagnetic Spectrum: Non-Ionizing Radiation". United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. December 7, 2015. Archived from the original on December 31, 2015. Retrieved August 21, 2021.
130. ^ "FDA warns Mercola: Stop selling fake COVID remedies and cures". Alliance for Science. Cornell University. March 15, 2021. Archived from the original on March 16, 2021. Retrieved August 21, 2021.
131. ^ Broad, William J. (July 16, 2019). "The 5G Health Hazard That Isn't". New York Times. Retrieved December 16, 2021.
132. ^ Broad, William J. (May 12, 2019). "Your 5G Phone Won't Hurt You. But Russia Wants You to Think Otherwise". The New York Times. Archived from the original on May 20, 2019. Retrieved May 12, 2019.
133. ^ "Brussels halts 5G plans over radiation rules". FierceWireless. April 8, 2019. Archived from the original on April 9, 2019. Retrieved April 11, 2019.
134. ^ "Schweiz: Genf stoppt Aufbau von 5G-Mobilfunkantennen" (in German). April 11, 2019. Archived from the original on April 14, 2019. Retrieved April 14, 2019.
135. ^ "5G Mobile Technology Fact Check" (PDF). asut. March 27, 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on April 3, 2019. Retrieved April 7, 2019.
136. ^ a b c "5G phones and your health: What you need to know". CNET. June 20, 2019. Archived from the original on June 22, 2019. Retrieved June 22, 2019.
137. ^ "Radiation concerns halt Brussels 5G development, for now". The Brussels Times. April 1, 2019. Archived from the original on July 14, 2019. Retrieved July 19, 2019.
138. ^ "Kamer wil eerst stralingsonderzoek, dan pas 5G-netwerk". Algemeen Dagblad. April 4, 2019.
139. ^ "Switzerland to monitor potential health risks posed by 5G networks". Reuters. April 17, 2019. Archived from the original on July 29, 2019. Retrieved July 19, 2019.
140. ^ "Bay Area city blocks 5G deployments over cancer concerns". TechCrunch. September 10, 2018.
141. ^ Dillon, John (May 7, 2019). "Broadband Bill to Be Amended to Address Concerns Over 5G Technology". Vermont Public Radio (VPR). Archived from the original on May 7, 2019. Retrieved July 19, 2019.
142. ^ "5G: What is it and how it will help us". Retrieved July 29, 2019.
143. ^ Humphries, Will (October 12, 2019). "Councils block 5G as scare stories spread". The Times. London. Archived from the original on October 14, 2019. Retrieved October 25, 2019.
144. ^ "Brighton and Hove City Council join growing list of local authorities banning 5G masts". itpro.co.uk. October 14, 2019. Archived from the original on October 25, 2019. Retrieved October 25, 2019.
145. ^ "5G 'no more dangerous than talcum powder and pickled vegetables', says digital minister Matt Warman". The Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on October 18, 2019. Retrieved October 25, 2019.
146. ^ Warren, Tom (April 4, 2020). "British 5G towers are being set on fire because of coronavirus conspiracy theories". The Verge. Retrieved April 5, 2020.
147. ^ Murphy, Ann (April 23, 2020). "Update: Arson attack on Cork mast linked to false 5G conspiracy theory". Echo Live. Retrieved April 30, 2020.
148. ^ Fildes, Nic; Di Stefano, Mark; Murphy, Hannah (April 16, 2020). "How a 5G coronavirus conspiracy spread across Europe". Financial Times. Retrieved April 16, 2020.
149. ^ "Mast fire probe amid 5G coronavirus claims". BBC News. April 4, 2020. Retrieved April 5, 2020.
150. ^ "Bibinje: Nepoznati glupani oštetili odašiljač za kojeg su mislili da je 5G". Seebiz (in Croatian). April 15, 2020. Retrieved April 21, 2020.
151. ^ Cerulus, Laurens (April 26, 2020). "5G arsonists turn up in continental Europe". Politico. Retrieved April 30, 2020.
152. ^ Osborne, Charlie (April 30, 2020). "5G mast arson, coronavirus conspiracy theories force social media to walk a fine censorship line". ZD Net.
153. ^ "AT&T brings higher speeds with pre-5G tech to 117 cities". April 19, 2018. Archived from the original on January 6, 2019. Retrieved January 6, 2019.
154. ^ "AT&T announces it will build a fake 5G network". April 25, 2017. Archived from the original on November 21, 2018. Retrieved January 6, 2019.
155. ^ Curie, M., Mewhinney, M., Cooper, S. "NASA – NASA Ames Partners With M2MI For Small Satellite Development". nasa.gov. Archived from the original on April 8, 2019. Retrieved April 8, 2019.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
156. ^ C.Sunitha; Deepika.G.Krishnan; V.A.Dhanya (January 2017). "Overview of Fifth Generation Networking" (PDF). International Journal of Computer Trends and Technology (IJCTT). 43 (1).
157. ^ "The world's first academic research center combining Wireless, Computing, and Medical Applications". NYU Wireless. June 20, 2014. Archived from the original on March 11, 2016. Retrieved January 14, 2016.
158. ^ Kelly, Spencer (October 13, 2012). "BBC Click Programme – Kenya". BBC News Channel. Archived from the original on April 10, 2019. Retrieved October 15, 2012. Some of the world biggest telecoms firms have joined forces with the UK government to fund a new 5G research center. The facility, to be based at the University of Surrey, will offer testing facilities to operators keen to develop a mobile standard that uses less energy and less radio spectrum, while delivering faster speeds than current 4G technology that's been launched in around 100 countries, including several British cities. They say the new tech could be ready within a decade.
159. ^ "The University Of Surrey Secures £35M For New 5G Research Centre". University of Surrey. October 8, 2012. Archived from the original on October 14, 2012. Retrieved October 15, 2012.
160. ^ "5G research centre gets major funding grant". BBC News. BBC News Online. October 8, 2012. Archived from the original on April 21, 2019. Retrieved October 15, 2012.
161. ^ Philipson, Alice (October 9, 2012). "Britain aims to join mobile broadband leaders with £35m '5G' research centre". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on October 13, 2018. Retrieved January 7, 2013.
162. ^ "METIS projet presentation" (PDF). November 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 22, 2014. Retrieved February 14, 2014.
163. ^ "Speech at Mobile World Congress: The Road to 5G". March 2015. Retrieved April 20, 2015.
164. ^ "5G Mobile Network Technology". April 2017. Archived from the original on May 18, 2017. Retrieved May 18, 2017.
165. ^ "삼성전자, 5세대 이동통신 핵심기술 세계 최초 개발". May 12, 2013. Archived from the original on September 19, 2018. Retrieved May 12, 2013.
166. ^ "General METIS presentations available for public". Archived from the original on February 22, 2014. Retrieved February 14, 2014.
167. ^ "India and Israel have agreed to work jointly on development of 5G". The Times Of India. July 25, 2013. Archived from the original on September 10, 2016. Retrieved July 25, 2013.
168. ^ "DoCoMo Wins CEATEC Award for 5G". October 3, 2013. Archived from the original on October 13, 2018. Retrieved October 3, 2013.
169. ^ Embley, Jochan (November 6, 2013). "Huawei plans $600m investment in 10Gbps 5G network". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on March 31, 2019. Retrieved November 11, 2013.
170. ^ "South Korea to seize on world's first full 5G network". Nikkei Asian Review. Archived from the original on April 17, 2019. Retrieved April 17, 2019.
171. ^ "US dismisses South Korea's launch of world-first 5G network as 'stunt' – 5G – The Guardian". amp.theguardian.com. April 4, 2019. Archived from the original on April 17, 2019. Retrieved April 17, 2019.
172. ^ "5G 첫날부터 4만 가입자…3가지 가입포인트" [From the first day of 5G, 40,000 subscribers ... 3 subscription points]. Asia Business Daily. April 6, 2019. Archived from the original on April 17, 2019. Retrieved April 17, 2019.
173. ^ "Globe 5G – The Latest Broadband Technology". globe.com.ph. Archived from the original on September 3, 2019. Retrieved June 21, 2019.
174. ^ "AT&T Begins Extending 5G Services Across the U.S." about.att.com. Retrieved November 23, 2019.
175. ^ Blumenthal, Eli. "AT&T's next 5G network is going live in December, but don't expect big jumps in speed". CNET. Archived from the original on November 23, 2019. Retrieved November 23, 2019.
176. ^ 5GAA-5G Automotive Association. "5GAA, Audi, Ford and Qualcomm Showcase C-V2X Direct Communications Interoperability to Improve Road Safety". newswire.ca. Archived from the original on January 6, 2019. Retrieved January 14, 2019.
177. ^ "The relationship between digital twins and 5G" (PDF).
178. ^ "5G-Powered Digital Twin: 5G Use Cases". Verizon Business. Retrieved March 6, 2022.
179. ^ "The Promise of 5G for Public Safety". EMS World. Archived from the original on December 16, 2018. Retrieved January 14, 2019.
180. ^ Fulton III, Scott. "What is 5G? All you need to know about the next generation of wireless technology". ZDNet. Archived from the original on April 21, 2019. Retrieved April 21, 2019.
181. ^ "5G Fixed Wireless Access (FWA) technology | What Is It?". 5g.co.uk. Archived from the original on April 21, 2019. Retrieved April 21, 2019.
182. ^ "5G Ultra Wideband Wireless Home Network | Verizon Wireless". verizonwireless.com. Archived from the original on May 16, 2019. Retrieved May 17, 2019.
183. ^ "Sony and Verizon Demonstrate 5G transmission for covering live sports". January 11, 2020.
184. ^ "Technology behind the project". 5g-today.de. Retrieved April 8, 2022.

•   Media related to 5G at Wikimedia Commons