Which of the following racial/ethnic groups makes up on 1 percent of cases across all offense types?

Below, we've curated a list of virtually all the research about race and the U.S. criminal justice system that is available online.

Racial discrimination in housing, sentencing, and policing frequently explains why data show stark disproportionalities in justice involvement for people of color, particularly Black people. The research below goes into more detail as to how — and why — people of color are overrepresented in jails, prisons, and non-carceral forms of punishment.

You can also see a selection of our best original research on this topic on our Racial Justice page.

(New) Restructuring Civilian Payouts for Police Misconduct Rashawn Ray, Center for Justice Research, July, 2022
(New) Racial Equity in Montana's Criminal Justice System: An Analysis of Court, Corrections, and Community Supervision Systems The Council of State Governments Justice Center, July, 2022
(New) Law Enforcement Agencies' College Education Hiring Requirements and Racial Differences in Police-Related Fatalities Paywall :( Thaddeus L. Johnson, Natasha N. Johnson, William J. Sabol and David T. Snively, July, 2022
The competing effects of racial discrimination and racial identity on the predicted number of days incarcerated in the US: A national profile of Black, Latino/Latina, and American Indian/Alaska Native populations George Pro, Ricky Camplain, Charles H. Lea III, June, 2022
Racial Bias and Prison Discipline: A Study of North Carolina State Prisons Katherine M. Becker, April, 2022
Beyond the count: A deep dive into state prison populations Prison Policy Initiative, April, 2022
Too Many Locked Doors Sentencing Project, March, 2022
(New) Criminal History, Race, and Housing Type: An Experimental Audit of Housing Outcomes Paywall :( Peter Leasure, R. Caleb Doyle, Hunter M. Boehme, and Gary Zhang, March, 2022
Massachusetts Uniform Citation Data Analysis Report Salem State University, Worcester State University, February, 2022
Barred from employment: More than half of unemployed men in their 30s had a criminal history of arrest Shawn Bushway et al, February, 2022
A Statistical Overview of the Kentucky Death Penalty Frank R. Baumgartner, January, 2022
The Civil Rights Implications of Cash Bail U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, January, 2022
Student Arrests in Allegheny County Schools: The Need for Transparency and Accountability ACLU Pennsylvania, January, 2022
Association of Incarceration With Mortality by Race From a National Longitudinal Cohort Study Benjamin J. Bovell-Ammon et al, December, 2021
The predatory dimensions of criminal justice Joshua Page and Joe Soss, October, 2021
Losing Years Doing Time: Incarceration Exposure and Accelerated Biological Aging among African American Adults Paywall :( Mark T. Berg et al, October, 2021
Racial Disparities in Law Enforcement Stops Public Policy Institute of California, October, 2021
The U.S. criminal justice system disproportionately hurts Native people: The data, visualized Prison Policy Initiative, October, 2021
Justice in Decision-Making: Studying Racial & Ethnic Disparities in the Brooklyn District Attorney's Office CUNY Institute for State & Local Governance, October, 2021
Access Denied: Eliminating Barriers and Increasing Economic Opportunity for Justice-Involved Individuals Collateral Consequences Resource Center, September, 2021
Police Exposures and the Health and Well-being of Black Youth in the US: A Systematic Review Paywall :( Monique Jindal et al, September, 2021
Reducing Restrictive Housing Use in Washington State Keramet Reiter, JD, PhD, August, 2021
Racial and Ethnic Disparities throughout the Criminal Legal System: A Result of Racist Policies and Discretionary Practices Urban Institute, August, 2021
Criminalized or Medicalized? Examining the Role of Race in Responses to Drug Use Paywall :( Sade L Lindsay, Mike Vuolo, August, 2021
Black Disparities in Youth Incarceration Sentencing Project, July, 2021
The Thin Blue Waveform: Racial Disparities in Officer Prosody Undermine Institutional Trust in the Police Nicholas P. Camp et al, July, 2021
County-Level Context and Sentence Lengths for Black, Latinx, and White Individuals Sentenced to Prison: A Multi-Level Assessment Paywall :( Katherine A. Durante, June, 2021
Enhanced Public Defense Improves Pretrial Outcomes and Reduces Racial Disparities Paul Heaton, May, 2021
Carceral-community epidemiology, structural racism, and COVID-19 disparities Eric Reinhart, Daniel L. Chen, May, 2021
The cumulative risk of jail incarceration Bruce Western, Jaclyn Davis, Flavien Ganter, and Natalie Smith, April, 2021
Race, Ethnicity, and Official Perceptions in the Juvenile Justice System: Extending the Role of Negative Attributional Stereotypes Paywall :( Laura Beckman and Nancy Rodriguez, April, 2021
ALC Court Watch Docket Report #02 Maintaining Apartheid: Arrest and Cash Bail in Allegheny County Abolitionist Law Center, April, 2021
The American Racial Divide in Fear of the Police Justin Pickett, Amanda Graham, and Frank Cullen, April, 2021
A Neglected Problem: Understanding the Effects of Personal and Vicarious Trauma on African Americans' Attitudes Toward the Police Paywall :( Daniel K. Pryce et al., April, 2021
Predictive Properties of a General Risk-Need Measure in Diverse Justice Involved Youth: A Prospective Field Validity Study Jessica Prince et al., April, 2021
Contacts with the Police and the Over-Representation of Indigenous Peoples in The Canadian Criminal Justice System Jean-Denis David and Megan Mitchell, April, 2021
Untangling Eviction, Disadvantage, Race, and Social Processes: Neighborhood Factors Influencing Crime Paywall :( Eileen M. Kirk, April, 2021
Collective Bargaining Rights, Policing, and Civilian Deaths Cunningham, Jamein, Donna Feir, and Rob Gillezeau, March, 2021
Better for Everyone: Black Descriptive Representation and Police Traffic Stops Leah Christiani et al., March, 2021
Research roundup: Violent crimes against Black and Latinx people receive less coverage and less justice Prison Policy Initiative, March, 2021
Are Effects of School Resource Officers Moderated by Student Race and Ethnicity? Paywall :( Scott Crosse et al., March, 2021
Racial Equity and Criminal Justice Risk Assessment Urban Institute, March, 2021
The Declining Significance of Race in Criminal Sentencing: Evidence from US Federal Courts Paywall :( Michael T Light, March, 2021
The Legacy of Slavery and Mass Incarceration: Evidence from Felony Case Outcomes Aaron Gottlieb and Kalen Flynn, March, 2021
The Evolving Science on Implicit Bias: An Updated Resource for the State Court Community National Center for State Courts, March, 2021
Black and (Thin) Blue (Line): Corruption and Other Political Determinants of Police Killings in America Oguzhan C. Dincer and Michael Johnston, February, 2021
Who Controls Criminal Law? Racial Threat and the Adoption of State Sentencing Law, 1975 to 2012 Scott W. Duxbury, February, 2021
Poverty and Mass Incarceration in New York: An Agenda for Change Brennan Center for Justice, February, 2021
The Consequences Are Black and White: Race and Poor Health Following Incarceration Paywall :( Julie L. Kuper and Jillian J. Turanovic, February, 2021
Racial Disparities in Youth Incarceration Persist Sentencing Project, February, 2021
The role of officer race and gender in police-civilian interactions in Chicago Paywall :( Ba, Bocar A., Dean Knox, Jonathan Mummolo, and Roman Rivera, February, 2021
Chasing Justice: Addressing Police Violence and Corruption in Maryland ACLU of Maryland, January, 2021
Prisons, Nursing Homes, and Medicaid: A COVID-19 Case Study in Health Injustice Mary Crossley, 2021
Trends in Issuance of Criminal Summonses in New York City, 2003-2019 Data Collaborative for Justice, December, 2020
Exploring Disproportionate Minority Contact in the Juvenile Justice System Over the Year Following First Arrest Paywall :( Padgaonkar et al, December, 2020
Racial prejudice predicts police militarization Tyler Jimenez, Peter J. Helm, Alexis Wilkinson, & Jamie Arndt, December, 2020
Emergency Department visits for depression following police killings of unarmed African Americans Paywall :( Abhery Das, Parvati Singh, Anju K.Kulkarni, and Tim A. Bruckner, November, 2020
ALC Court Watch Docket Report #01 Cash Bail, Arbitrary Detention and Apartheid in Allegheny County Abolitionist Law Center, November, 2020
Civic Responses to Police Violence Desmond Ang and Jonathan Tebes, October, 2020
Jails in Indian Country, 2017-2018 Bureau of Justice Statistics, October, 2020
The Intersection of Race and Algorithmic Tools in the Criminal Legal System Vincent M. Southerland, October, 2020
Punishing status and the punishment status quo: Solitary confinement in U.S. Immigration prisons, 2013-2017 Konrad Franco, Caitlin Patler, and Keramet Reiter, October, 2020
Unmasked: Impacts of Pandemic Policing COVID19 Policing Project, October, 2020
New BJS data reveals a jail-building boom in Indian country Prison Policy Initiative, October, 2020
Measuring Racial Discrimination in Bail Decisions David Arnold, Will Dobbie, and Peter Hull, October, 2020
New BJS data: Prison incarceration rates inch down, but racial equity and real decarceration still decades away Prison Policy Initiative, October, 2020
Institutionalizing inequality in the courts: Decomposing racial and ethnic disparities in detention, conviction, and sentencing Paywall :( Marisa Omori and Nick Petersen, September, 2020
Trauma, Healing, and Justice: Native Hawaiian Women in Hawaii's Criminal Justice System Paywall :( Toni Bissen, September, 2020
Tracking Enforcement Trends in New York City: 2003-2018 Data Collaborative for Justice, September, 2020
NYPD Officer Misconduct Analysis New York University's Public Safety Lab, September, 2020
Racial Disparities in the Massachusetts Criminal System The Criminal Justice Policy Program, Harvard Law School, September, 2020
The Other Epidemic: Fatal Police Shootings in the Time of COVID-19 ACLU, August, 2020
Revolving Doors: Examining the Effect of Race and Ethnicity on Discretionary Decision-Making in Parole Revocations Tri Keah S. Henry, August, 2020
An Analysis of Court Imposed Monetary Sanctionsin Seattle Municipal Courts, 2000-2017 Frank Edwards and Alexes Harris, August, 2020
Life Years Lost to Police Encounters in the United States Elizabeth Wrigley-Field, August, 2020
Hidden in Plain Sight: Racism, White Supremacy, and Far-Right Militancy in Law Enforcement Brennan Center for Justice, August, 2020
Criminal Disqualifications in the Paycheck Protection Program Keith Finlay, Michael Mueller-Smith, Brittany Street, July, 2020
Whom the State Kills Scott Phillips & Justin Marceau, July, 2020
Reducing Racial Disparities in Crime Victimization Anna Harvey and Taylor Mattia, July, 2020
Illinois Failing Key Pillar of COVID-19 Response: Prisons Remain Crowded While Early Releases Exacerbate Racial Inequity Restore Justice, June, 2020
Proposition 47's Impact on Racial Disparity in Criminal Justice Outcome Public Policy Institute of California, June, 2020
Confronting the Demographics of Power: America's Sheriffs Women Donors Network, June, 2020
The Complexities of Race and Place: Childhood Neighborhood Disadvantage and Adult Incarceration for Whites, Blacks, and Latinos Steven Elias Alvarado, June, 2020
Police Killings in the US: Inequalities by Race/Ethnicity and Socioeconomic Position People's Policy Project, June, 2020
America's Hidden Common Ground on Police Reform and Racism in the United States: Results from a Public Agenda/USA Today/Ipsos Hidden Common Ground survey Ipsos and Public Agenda, June, 2020
Race and Reasonableness in Police Killings Jeffrey Fagan and Alexis Campbell, May, 2020
A large-scale analysis of racial disparities in police stops across the United States Emma Pierson et al, May, 2020
Catalyzing Policing Reform with Data: Policing Typology for Los Angeles Neighborhoods Urban Institute, May, 2020
Since you asked: What data exists about Native American people in the criminal justice system? Prison Policy Initiative, April, 2020
A Tale of Two Countries: Racially Targeted Arrests in the Era of Marijuana Reform ACLU, April, 2020
Opioids, Race, and Drug Enforcement: Exploring Local Relationships Between Neighborhood Context and Black-White Opioid-Related Possession Arrests Paywall :( Ellen A. Donnelly, Jascha Wagner, Madeline Stenger, Hannah G. Cortina, Daniel J. O'Connell, Tammy L. Anderson, March, 2020
Racial Inequities in New York Parole Supervision Kendra Bradner and Vincent Schiraldi, March, 2020
Driving While Black and Latinx: Stops, Fines, Fees, and Unjust Debts New York Law School Racial Justice Project, February, 2020
In Trouble: How the Promise of Diversion Clashes With the Reality of Poverty, Addiction, and Structural Racism in Alabama's Justice Alabama Appleseed Center for Law & Justice, February, 2020
Local Labor Market Inequality in the Age of Mass Incarceration Luke Petach and Anita Alves Pena, 2020
Treatment versus Punishment: Understanding Racial Inequalities in Drug Policy Jin Woo Kim, Evan Morgan, Brendan Nyhan, December, 2019
Trends in Correctional Control by Race and Sex The Council on Criminal Justice, December, 2019
We All Pay: Mississippi's Harmful Habitual Laws FWD.us, November, 2019
Rethinking Approaches to Over Incarceration of Black Young Adults in Maryland Justice Policy Institute, November, 2019
How race impacts who is detained pretrial Prison Policy Initiative, November, 2019
The Effect of Scaling Back Punishment on Racial Disparities in Criminal Case Outcomes John MacDonald and Steven Raphael, September, 2019
The Race of Defendants and Victims in Pennsylvania Death Penalty Decisions: 2000-2010 Paywall :( Jeffery T. Ulmer, John H. Kramer, and Gary Zajac, August, 2019
The National Initiative for Building Community Trust and Justice: Key Process and Outcome Evaluation Findings Urban Institute, August, 2019
Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex Frank Edwards, Hedwig Lee, and Michael Esposito, August, 2019
Changes in Enforcement of Low-Level and Felony Offenses Post-Ferguson: An Analysis of Arrests in St. Louis, Missouri Lee Ann Slocum, Claire Greene, Beth M. Huebner, and Richard Rosenfeld, July, 2019
State Supreme Court Diversity Brennan Center for Justice, July, 2019
Racialized Re-entry: Labor Market Inequality After Incarceration Bruce Western and Catherine Sirois, June, 2019
Felony Disenfranchisement: A Primer Sentencing Project, June, 2019
The California Death Penalty is Discriminatory, Unfair, and Officially Suspended. So Why Does Los Angeles District Attorney Jackie Lacey Still Seek to Use It? ACLU, June, 2019
LGBTQ Youth of Color Impacted by the Child Welfare and Juvenile Justice Systems: A Research Agenda UCLA Williams Institute, June, 2019
More Black than Blue: Politics and Power in the 2019 Black Census The Black Futures Lab, May, 2019
Racial Disparities in D.C. Policing: Descriptive Evidence From 2013-2017 ACLU of the District of Columbia, May, 2019
Using Shifts in Deployment and Operations to Test for Racial Bias in Police Stops John M. MacDonald and Jeffrey Fagan, May, 2019
Aggressive Policing and Academic Outcomes: Examining the Impact of Police Joscha Legewie, Chelsea Farley, Kayla Stewart, May, 2019
Prosecutorial Misconduct: Mass Gang Indictments and Inflammatory Statements Babe Howell, May, 2019
Misdemeanors by the Numbers Sandra Mayson and Megan Stevenson, April, 2019
What Percentage of Americans Have Ever Had a Family Member Incarcerated?: Evidence from the Family History of Incarceration Survey Enns et al., March, 2019
At the Intersection of Health and Justice: How the Health of American Indians and Alaska Natives Is Disproportionately Affected by Disparities in the Criminal Justice System Bette Jacobs, Mehgan Gallagher, and Nicole Heydt, February, 2019
How Police Technology Aggravates Racial Inequity: A Taxonomy of Problems and a Path Forward Laura Moy, February, 2019
Examining Judicial Pretrial Release Decisions: The Influence of Risk Assessments and Race Brian P. Schaefer and Tom Hughes,, January, 2019
The State of Black Immigrants Black Alliance for Just Immigration, January, 2019
Bias in Video Evidence: Implications for Police Body Cameras Ashley Kalle, Georgina Hammock, 2019
Testifying while black: An experimental study of court reporter accuracy in transcription of African American English Taylor Jones, Jessica Rose Kalbfeld, Ryan Hancock, and Robin Clark, 2019
The Determinants of Declining Racial Disparities in Female Incarceration Rates, 2000-2015 Samuel L. Myers, Jr., William J. Sabol, and Man Xu, December, 2018
Police stops are still marred by racial discrimination, new data shows. Prison Policy Initiative, October, 2018
Racial Profiling in Louisiana: Unconstitutional and Counterproductive Southern Poverty Law Center, September, 2018
The Color of Youth Transferred to the Adult Criminal Justice System: Policy & Practice Recommendations Campaign for Youth Justice, September, 2018
Militarization fails to enhance police safety or reduce crime but may harm police reputation Jonathan Mummolo, August, 2018
Risk of Police-Involved Death by Race/Ethnicity and Place, United States, 2012-2018 Paywall :( Frank Edwards, Michael H. Esposito, and Hedwig Lee, August, 2018
Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Arrests for Drug Possession After California Proposition 47, 2011-2016 Mooney et al., August, 2018
Nowhere to Go: Homelessness among formerly incarcerated people Prison Policy Initiative, August, 2018
Out of Prison & Out of Work: Unemployment among formerly incarcerated people Prison Policy Initiative, July, 2018
Unequal Treatment: Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Miami-Dade Criminal Justice ACLU Florida Greater Miami, July, 2018
From Bondage to Bail Bonds: Putting a Price on Freedom in New Orleans The Data Center, May, 2018
An Unjust Burden: The Disparate Treatment of Black Americans in the Criminal Justice System Vera Institute of Justice, May, 2018
Swept Up in the Sweep: The Impact of Gang Allegations on Immigrant New Yorkers New York Immigration Coalition, May, 2018
The Relationship Between Structural Racism and Black-White Disparities in Fatal Police Shootings at the State Level Paywall :( Aldina Mesic et al, April, 2018
Racial Bias in Bail Decisions David Arnold, Will Dobbie, and Crystal S. Yang, April, 2018
Police Stops and Searches of Indigenous People in Minneapolis: The Roles of Race, Place, and Gender Marina Mileo Gorsuch and Deborah Rho, April, 2018
Criminalizing Race: Racial Disparities in Plea-Bargaining Carlos Berdejo, April, 2018
Report to the United Nations on Racial Disparities in the U.S. Criminal Justice System The Sentencing Project, April, 2018
A Deeper Dive into Racial Disparities in Policing in Vermont Stephanie Seguino and Nancy Brooks, March, 2018
The Scale of Misdemeanor Justice Megan Stevenson & Sandra Mayson, March, 2018
Divided Justice: Trends in Black and White Jail Incarceration, 1990-2013 Vera Institute of Justice, February, 2018
New poll shows mass incarceration is a Latinx issue Prison Policy Initiative, January, 2018
One War. Two Races. Bias Reigns in Florida's War on Drugs Herald Tribune, January, 2018
Mass Probation and Inequality: Race, Class, and Gender Disparities in Supervision and Revocation Michelle Phelps, 2018
An Analysis of Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Case Dispositions and Sentencing Outcomes for Criminal Cases Presented to and Processed by the Office of the San Francisco District Attorney John MacDonald & Steven Raphael, December, 2017
1844 No More New Jersey Institute for Social Justice, December, 2017
Racial disparities in health conditions among prisoners compared with the general population Kathryn M. Nowotny, Richard G. Rogers, Jason D. Boardman, December, 2017
Jails in Indian Country, 2016 Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 2017
The parallel epidemics of incarceration & HIV in the Deep South Prison Policy Initiative, September, 2017
What "Stop-and-Frisk" Really Means: Discrimination & Use of Force Prison Policy Initiative, August, 2017
It Matters If You're Black or White: Racial Disparities in the Handling of Complaints against North Charleston Police Officers NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, Inc., July, 2017
Language from police body camera footage shows racial disparities in officer respect Stanford University, June, 2017
Data confirms that police treat Black Americans with less respect Prison Policy Initiative, June, 2017
Hate Crime Victimization, 2004-2015 Bureau of Justice Statistics, June, 2017
Paying More for Being Poor: Bias and Disparity in California's Traffic Court System Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights of the San Francisco Bay Area, May, 2017
Selling Off Our Freedom: How insurance corporations have taken over our bail system Color of Change and the American Civil Liberties Union, May, 2017
Racism & Felony Disenfranchisement: An Intertwined History Brennan Center for Justice, May, 2017
Unpacking the connections between race, incarceration, and women's HIV rates Prison Policy Initiative, May, 2017
Still Life: America's Increasing Use of Life and Long-Term Sentences The Sentencing Project, May, 2017
Mass incarceration, public health, and widening inequality in the USA Christopher Wildeman, Emily A Wang, April, 2017
Bullies in Blue: Origins and Consequences of School Policing American Civil Liberties Union, April, 2017
Prison: Evidence of its use and over-use from around the world Institute for Criminal Policy Research, March, 2017
Race and Wrongful Convictions in the United States National Registry of Exonerations, University of Michigan Law School, March, 2017
Sentencing Outcomes in U.S. District Courts: Can Offenders' Educational Attainment Guard Against Prevalent Criminal Stereotypes? Travis W. Franklin, Sam Houston State University, February, 2017
Behind the Badge: How Police View Their Jobs, Key Issues, and Recent Fatal Encounters Between Blacks and Police Pew Research Center, January, 2017
Florida: An Outlier in Denying Voting Rights Brennan Center for Justice, December, 2016
The Geography of Incarceration: Boston Indicators Project, MassINC, and the Massachusetts Criminal Justice Reform Coalition, November, 2016
Every 25 Seconds: The Human Toll of Criminalizing Drug Use in the United States Human Rights Watch and the ACLU, October, 2016
Driving While Black: A Report on Racial Profiling in Metro Nashville Police Department Traffic Stops Gideon's Army, October, 2016
Who Pays for Government? Descriptive Representation and Exploitative Revenue Sources Michael W. Sances and Hye Young You, September, 2016
Why do we lock juveniles up for life and throw away the key? Race plays a big part. Prison Policy Initiative, September, 2016
Evaluating the Role of Race in Criminal Justice Adjudications in Delaware John M. MacDonald and Ellen A. Donnelly, University of Pennsylvania, September, 2016
Police Violence and Citizen Crime Reporting in the Black Community Professor Matthew Desmond, Harvard University; Professor Andrew Papachristos, Yale University; Professor David Kirk, University of Oxford, September, 2016
Unjust: How the broken criminal justice system fails LGBT people of color Center for American Progress, Movement Advancement Project.., August, 2016
Investigation of the Baltimore City Police Department U.S. Department of Justice Civil Rights Division, August, 2016
Racial Profiling in Hiring: A Critique of New National Employment Law Project, August, 2016
Is Justice Really Blind? Race and Reversal in US Courts Journal of Legal Studies, July, 2016
The Gavel Gap: Who Sits in Judgment on State Courts? American Constitution Society for Law and Policy, June, 2016
Voting Rights of Former Felons ACLU of Nebraska, June, 2016
Ban the Box, Criminal Records, and Statistical Discrimination: A Field Experiment Amanda Agan and Sonja Starr, June, 2016
The Color of Justice: Racial and Ethnic Disparities in State Prisons The Sentencing Project, June, 2016
Stemming The Rising Tide: Racial & Ethnic Disparities in Youth Incarceration & Strategies for Change W. Haywood Burns Institute, May, 2016
Racial Disparities in Youth Commitments and Arrests The Sentencing Project, April, 2016
Louisiana Death-Sentenced Cases and Their Reversals, 1976-2015 The Journal of Race, Gender, and Poverty, April, 2016
Racial Disparities in Florida Safety Belt Law Enforcement ACLU, February, 2016
Lethally Deficient: Direct Appeals in Texas Death Penalty Cases Texas Defender Service, 2016
Selective Policing: Racially Disparate Enforcement of Low-Level Offenses in New Jersey ACLU of New Jersey, December, 2015
The Conditioning Effects of Race and Gender on the Juvenile Court Outcomes of Delinquent and "Neglected" Types of Offenders Justice Quarterly, November, 2015
Hate Crime Statistics, 2014 Federal Bureau of Investigation, November, 2015
A Multi-Level Bayesian Analysis of Racial Bias in Police Shootings at the County-Level in the United States, 2011-2014 University of California, Davis, November, 2015
Suspended Childhood: An Analysis of Exclusionary Discipline of Texas' Pre-K and Elementary School Students Texas Appleseed, November, 2015
Federal Sentencing Disparity: 2005-2012 Bureau of Justice Statistics, October, 2015
Diversity on the Force: Where Police Don't Mirror Communities Governing, September, 2015
Race-Of-Victim Discrepancies in Homicides and Executions, Louisiana 1976-2015 Loyola University of New Orleans Journal of Public Interest Law, August, 2015
Blackstrikes: A Study of the Racially Disparate Use of Preemptory Challenges by the Caddo Parish District Attorney's Office Reprieve Australia, August, 2015
Disproportionate Impact of K-12 School Suspension and Expulsion on Black Students in Southern States University of Pennsylvania Graduate School of Education, August, 2015
Investigation of the St. Louis County Family Court St. Louis, Missouri Department of Justice, July, 2015
The Racial Geography of Mass Incarceration Prison Policy Initiative, July, 2015
In prisons, Blacks and Latinos do the time while Whites get the jobs Prison Policy Initiative, July, 2015
Say Her Name: Resisting Police Brutality Against Black Women African American Policy Forum, July, 2015
Stuck in the '70s: The Demographics of California Prosecutors Stanford Criminal Justice Center, July, 2015
San Francisco Justice Reinvestment Initiative: Racial and ethnic disparities analysis for the reentry council The W. Haywood Burns Institute for Juvenile Justice Fairness & Equity, June, 2015
Reducing Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Jails: Recommendations for Local Practice Brennan Center for Justice, June, 2015
Racial Inequalities in Connectedness to Imprisoned Individuals in the United States Du Bois Review, May, 2015
San Francisco's Disproportionate Arrest of African American Women Persists Center on Juvenile and Criminal Justice, April, 2015
In Brief: Examining the Changing Racial Composition of Three States' Prison Populations CSG Justice Center, March, 2015
Investigation of the Ferguson Police Department Department of Justice Civil Rights Division, March, 2015
Stop and Frisk in Chicago ACLU of Illinois, March, 2015
Reducing Harms to Boys and Young Men of Color from Criminal Justice System Involvement Urban Institute, February, 2015
Black Lives Matter: Eliminating Racial Inequity in the Criminal Justice System Sentencing Project, February, 2015
Native Lives Matter Lakota People's Law Project, February, 2015
Where Do We Go from Here? Mass Incarceration and the Struggle for Civil Rights Economic Policy Institute, January, 2015
Demographic Differences in Sentencing: An Update to the 2012 Booker Report United States Sentencing Commission, 2015
Whitewashing the Jury Box: How California Perpetuates the Discriminatory Exclusion of Black and Latinx Jurors Berkeley Law Death Penalty Clinic, 2015
The criminogenic and psychological effects of police stops on adolescent black and Latino boys Del Toro et al., 2015
Born Suspect: Stop-and-Frisk Abuses & the Continued Fight to End Racial Profiling in America NAACP, 2015
The Cumulative Probability of Arrest by Age 28 Years in the United States by Disability Status, Race/Ethnicity, and Gender Erin J. McCauley, 2015
Applying a racial equity lens to fines and fees in the District of Columbia D.C. Policy Center, 2015
CPD Traffic Stops and Resulting Searches in 2013 ACLU of Illinois, December, 2014
Incorporating Racial Equity into Criminal Justice Reform Sentencing Project, October, 2014
Shadow Report of The Sentencing Project to the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination: Regarding Racial Disparities in the United States Criminal Justice System Sentencing Project, July, 2014
Illusion of Justice: Human Rights Abuses in US Terrorism Prosecutions Human Rights Watch and Columbia Law School, July, 2014
Race and Prosecution in Manhattan Vera Institute of Justice, July, 2014
Collatoral Damage A Roadmap to Restore Rights and Status After Arrest or Conviction National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers, May, 2014
Unintended Consequences: Effects of Paternal Incarceration on Child School Readiness and Later Special Education Placement Anna R. Haskins, April, 2014
The Color of Corporate Corrections, Part II: Contractual Exemptions and the Overrepresentation of People of Color in Private Prisons Radical Criminology, February, 2014
Prosecution and Racial Justice in New York County Technical Report Vera Institute of Justice, January, 2014
Justice in Washing State Survey, 2012 Revised and Updated 2014 The Washington State Minority Health Commission, The Washington State Center for Court Research, 2014
The Degree of Disadvantage: Incarceration and Inequality in Education Stephanie Ewert, Bryan L. Sykes, and Becky Pettit, November, 2013
Criminal Justice in the 21st Century: Eliminating Racial and Ethnic Disparities in the Criminal Justice System National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers, October, 2013
Report of the Sentencing Project to the UN Human Rights Committee Regarding Racial Disparities in the United States Criminal Justice System The Sentencing Project, August, 2013
Racial Disparities in Arrests in the District of Columbia, 2009-2011 Washington Lawyers' Committee, July, 2013
Race, Justifiable Homicide, and Stand Your Ground Laws: Analysis of FBI Supplementary Homicide Report Data Urban Institute, July, 2013
The War on Marijuana in Black and White: Billions of Dollars Waster on Racially Biased Arrests American Civil Liberties Union, June, 2013
Wisconsin's Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges for 2013 Employment and Training Institute, University of Wisconsin, April, 2013
The Dose-Response of Time Served in Prison on Mortality: New York State, 1989-2003 Evelyn J. Patterson, University of Vanderbilt, March, 2013
Mapping Muslims: NYPD Spying and its Impact on American Muslims The Muslim American Civil Liberties Coalition (MACLC), The Creating Law Enforcement Accountability & Responsibility (CLEAR), The Asian American Legal Defense and Education Fund (AALDEF)., March, 2013
Addressing Racial Disparities In Bail Determinations New York University Journal of Legislation and Public Policy, 2013
In Search of Racial Justice: The Role of the Prosecutor New York University Journal of Legislation and Public Policy, 2013
Criminal Records, Race, and Redemption New York University Journal of Legislation and Public Policy, 2013
Tracked and Trapped: Youth of Color, Gang Databases and Gang Injunctions Youth Justice Coalition RealSearch Actions Research Center, December, 2012
The Native Hawaiian Justice Task Force Report 2012 The Native Hawaiian Justice Task Force, December, 2012
The Disparate Treatment of Native Hawaiians In the Criminal Justice System Office of Hawaiian Affairs, November, 2012
Tribal Crime Data Collection Activities Bureau of Justice Statistics, October, 2012
Do Race and Ethnicity Matter in Prosecution? A Review of Empirical Studies Vera Institute of Justice, June, 2012
Report of Findings: (investigation of allegations of national origin discrimination) Civil Rights Division of the United States Department of Justice, March, 2012
The Disproportionate Impact of the Criminal Justice System on People of Color in the Capital Region Center for Law and Justice, February, 2012
A Stubborn Legacy: The Overwhelming Importance of Race in Jury Selection in 173 Post-Batson North Carolina Capital Trials Michigan State University College of Law, 2012
Forensic DNA Database Expansion Growing Racial Inequities, Eroding Civil Liberties and Diminishing Returns Generations Ahead, November, 2011
Breaking Schools' Rules: A Statewide Study of How School Discipline Relates to Students' Success and Juvenile Justice Involvement The Council of State Governments Justice Center, July, 2011
Justice for All? Challenging Racial Disparities in the Criminal Justice System Sentencing Project, June, 2011
Tribal Crime Data Collection Activities Bureau of Justice Statistics, June, 2011
Missouri Vehicle Stops 2009 Annual Report Missouri Attorney General's Office, 2011
The Racial Geography of the Federal Death Penalty Washington Law Review Association, December, 2010
Separate but Unequal The Federal Criminal Justice System in Indian County University of Colorado Law Review, December, 2010
Comparing Homicides to Capital Cases East Baton Rouge Parish, 1990-2008 Timothy Lyman, November, 2010
Stop, Question & Frisk Policing Practices In New York City A Primer Center on Race, Crime and Justice at John Jay College of Criminal Justice, March, 2010
Created Equal: Racial and Ethnic Disparities in the US Criminal Justice System National Council on Crime and Delinquency, March, 2009
Compounded Disadvantage Race, Incarceration, and Wage Growth National Poverty Center, October, 2008
Racial Disproportionality in the American Prison Population: Using the Blumstein Method to Address the Critical Race and Justice Issue of the 21st Century Justice Policy Journal, September, 2008
Report to U.S. Committee for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination that U.S. Census practices dilute votes of minority populations Demos and Prison Policy Initiative, December, 2007
Racial Disparities in Criminal Court Processing in the United States Sentencing Project, December, 2007
Real Impacts: The actual results of Rhode Island's new policy that charges 17-year-olds as adults Rhode Island Family Life Center, October, 2007
America's Cradle to Prison Pipeline Children's Defense Fund, October, 2007
Analysis of the NYCPD's in the Context of Claims of Racial Bias Andrew Gelman, Jeffrey Fagan, and Alex Kiss, September, 2007
Who Survives on Death Row? An Individual and Contextual Analysis American Civil Liberties Union, August, 2007
Black Victims of Violent Crime Bureau of Justice Statistics, August, 2007
Uneven Justice: State Rates of Incarceration by Race and Ethnicity Sentencing Project, July, 2007
The Persistent Problem of Racial Disparities in the Federal Death Penalty American Civil Liberties Union, June, 2007
Prisoner-assisted homicide: more 'volunteer' executions loom Amnesty International, May, 2007
Contacts between Police and the Public, 2005 Bureau of Justice Statistics, April, 2007
And Justice for Some: Differential Treatment of Youth of Color in the Justice System The National Council on Crime and Delinquency, January, 2007
An Analysis of Racial Disproportionality in Juvenile Confinement An Analysis of Disproportionate Minority Confinement in the Hennepin County Juvenile Detention Center Council on Crime and Justice, August, 2006
Consideration of Reports Submitted by States Parties Under Article 40 of the Covenant United Nations - Human Rights Committee, July, 2006
Instituting Lasting Reforms for Prisoner Reentry in Philadelphia Urban Institute, June, 2006
Law Enforcement and Arab American Community Relations After September 11, 2001: Engagement in a Time of Uncertainty Vera Institute of Justice, June, 2006
A Report on Pre- and Post-Katrina Indigent Defense in New Orleans Southern Center for Human Rights, April, 2006
Hidden Challenges: Juvenile Justice and Education Issues Affecting Asian and Pacific Islander (API) Youth in Richmond, California National Council on Crime and Delinquency, March, 2006
Reducing Racial Disparity While Enhancing Public Safety: Key Findings and Recommendations Council on Crime and Justice, 2006
Human Rights in the Heartland: An assessment of social, economic, civil, and political rights in the Midwest Heartland Alliance, December, 2005
Census of Tribal Justice Agencies in Indian Country, 2002 Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 2005
Hennepin County Disproportionate Minority Contact Study Examining Extended Jurisdiction Juvenile and Adult Certification Cases Council on Crime and Justice, October, 2005
Searching for Justice: American Indian Perspectives on Disparities in Minnesota's Criminal Justice System Council on Crime and Justice, August, 2005
Black Male Incarceration Rates and the Relatively High Rate of AIDS Infection Among African-American Women and Men Goldman School of Public Policy, UC Berkeley, July, 2005
Incarceration is not an equal opportunity punishment Prison Policy Initiative, June, 2005
Root Causes and Solutions to Disparities for Hispanics/Latinos in the Juvenile Justice System Council on Crime and Justice, May, 2005
The Governor's Preventing Crime in Virginia's Minority Communities Task Force Department of Criminal Justice Services, March, 2005
Race & Imprisonment in Texas: The Disparate Incarceration of Latinos and African Americans in the Lone Star State Justice Policy Institute, February, 2005
Don't Mind If I Take a Look, Do Ya? An Examination of Consent Searches and Contraband Hit Rates at Texas Traffic Stops Texas Criminal Justice Coalition, February, 2005
Racial disparity in sentencing: A review of the literature Sentencing Project, January, 2005
Race and Incarceration in Delaware: A Preliminary Consideration Thomas P. Eichler, Published by Delaware Center for Justice and Metropolitan Wilmington Urban League, 2005
American Indians and Crime: A BJS Statistical Profile, 1992-2002 Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 2004
Fifteen Years of Guidelines Sentencing U.S. Sentencing Commission, November, 2004
Civil Rights Enforcement by Bush Administration Lags Trac Reports, November, 2004
Low Level Offenses in Minneapolis: An Analysis of Arrests and their Outcomes Council on Crime and Justice, October, 2004
The Vanishing Black Electorate: Felony Disenfranchisement In Atlanta, Georgia Sentencing Project, September, 2004
Race and Drug Law Enforcement in Seattle Defender Association's Racial Disparity Project, May, 2004
Mass Imprisonment and the Life Course: Race and Class Inequality in U.S. Incarceration Becky Pettit and Bruce Western, May, 2004
Racial disparities in incarceration by state, 2000 Prison Policy Initiative, May, 2004
Incarceration rates by race, 2001: Prison Policy Initiative, April, 2004
Schools and Prisons: Fifty Years After Brown v. Board of Education Sentencing Project, April, 2004
State Rates of Incarceration by Race Sentencing Project, January, 2004
Seeing Black: Race, Crime, and Visual Processing Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2004
Race and Incarceration in Maryland Justice Policy Institute, October, 2003
Racial Disparities in North Carolina incarceration Prison Policy Initiative, September, 2003
Minnesota Statewide Racial Profiling Study Council on Crime and Justice, September, 2003
Hispanic Prisoners in the United States Sentencing Project, August, 2003
Disproportionate Minority Confinement In Massachusetts: Failures in Assessing and Addressing Overrepresentation of Minorities in the Massachusetts Juvenile Justice System American Civil Liberties Union, June, 2003
Identifying the HIV/AIDS/STD-related Needs of African American Ex-Offenders Council on Crime and Justice, April, 2003
Incarcerated America: Backgrounder Human Rights Watch, April, 2003
Death by discrimination: The continuing role of race in capital cases Amnesty International, April, 2003
The Mark of a Criminal Record Prof. Devah Pager, Northwestern University, March, 2003
East Side of St. Paul: Crime Related Needs Assessment Council on Crime and Justice, February, 2003
A Department in Denial: The San Francisco Police Department's Failure to Address Racial Profiling ACLU of Northern California, October, 2002
On The Level: Disproportionate Minority Contact in Minnesota's Juvenile Justice System Minnesota Department of Public Safety, October, 2002
¿Dónde Está la Justicia? A Call to Action on behalf of Latino and Latina Youth in the U.S. Justice System (English Version) Building Blocks for Youth, July, 2002
Hispanic Victims of Violent Crime, 1993-2000 Bureau of Justice Statistics, April, 2002
Defining the Disparity -Taking A Closer Look: Do Drug Use Patterns Explain Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Drug Arrests in Minnesota Council on Crime and Justice, April, 2002
Race and Incarceration in the United States Human Rights Watch, February, 2002
Reducing Disproportionate Minority Confinement: The Multnomah County Oregon Success Story and its Implications Justice Policy Institute, January, 2002
African American Males in the Criminal Justice System Council on Crime and Justice, 2002
Wisconsin Racial Disparities in Criminal Justice Project Professor Pamela Oliver University of Wisconsin Department of Sociology, 2002
The Vicious Circle: Race, Prison, Jobs and Community in Chicago, Illinois, and the Nation Chicago Urban League, 2002
Race and Class Penalties in Crack Cocaine Sentencing Sentencing Project, 2002
Public Opinion on Youth, Crime, and Race: A Guide for Advocates Youth Law Center, October, 2001
Mass Incarceration as Reverse Reparations Chicago Urban League, September, 2001
Color of the Keystone: Racial and Ethnic Disparity in the Use of Incarceration in Pennsylvania Justice Policy Institute and National Center on Institutions and Alternatives, August, 2001
Racism and the administration of justice Amnesty International, July, 2001
The brotherhood: Racism and intimidation among prison staff at Indiana Correctional Facility-Putnamville Kelsey Kauffman, July, 2001
Report to the Supreme Court Systemic Proportionality Review Project 2000-2001 Term New Jersey Supreme Court, June, 2001
Masking the Divide: How Officially Reported Prison Statistics Distort the Racial and Ethnic Realities of Prison Growth National Center on Institutions and Alternatives, May, 2001
Off Balance: Youth, Race & Crime in the News Building Blocks for Youth, April, 2001
Drugs and Disparity: The Racial Impact of Illinois' Practice of Transferring Young Drug Offenders Building Blocks for Youth, April, 2001
Race and the Death Penalty in North Carolina An Empirical Analysis: 1993-1997 The Common Sense Foundation, April, 2001
Violent Victimization and Race, 1993-98 Bureau of Justice Statistics, March, 2001
Justice on Trial: Racial Disparities in the American Criminal Justice System Leadership Conference on Civil Rights, Leadership Conference Education Fund, 2001
The Color and Geography of Prison Growth in Illinois Chicago Urban League, 2001
Color Bind: Prisons and the New American Racism Chicago Urban League, 2001
Reducing Racial Disparity in the Criminal Justice System: A Manual for Practitioners and Policymakers Sentencing Project, October, 2000
Punishment and Prejudice: Racial Disparities in the War on Drugs Human Rights Watch, May, 2000
And Justice for Some Building Blocks for Youth, April, 2000
The Color of Justice An Analysis of Juvenile Adult Court Transfers in California Building Blocks for Youth, February, 2000
The Impact of Race and Ethnicity on Charging and Sentencing Processes for Drug Offenders in Three Counties of Washington State Washington State Minority and Justice Commission, December, 1999
Driving While Black: Racial Profiling On Our Nation's Highways American Civil Liberties Union, June, 1999
Crisis of the Young African American Male and the Criminal Justice System Sentencing Project, April, 1999
Prisons as a Growth Industry in Rural America: An Exploratory Discussion of the Effects on Young African American Men in the Inner Cities Tracy Huling, consultant to the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, April, 1999
American Indians and Crime Bureau of Justice Statistics, February, 1999
Double Jeopardy: An Assessment of the Felony Drug Provision of the Welfare Reform Act Justice Policy Institute, October, 1998
The Death Penalty in Black & White: Who Lives, Who Dies, Who Decides Death Penalty Information Center, June, 1998
Juvenile Justice and Disproportionality: Patterns of Minority Over-Representation in Washington's Juvenile Justice System State of Washington Sentencing Guidelines Commission, December, 1997
Profile of anti-drug law enforcement in urban poverty areas in Massachusetts William N. Brownsberger, November, 1997
From Classrooms to Cell-blocks: How Prison Building Affects Higher Education and African American Enrollment in CA Justice Policy Institute, October, 1996
Race and drug law enforcement in the state of Georgia Human Rights Watch, July, 1996
A Preference for Vengeance: The Death Penalty and the Treatment of Prisoners in Georgia Southern Center for Human Rights, June, 1996
Young African Americans and the Criminal Justice System in California: Five Years Later Center on Juvenile and Criminal Justice, February, 1996
Continuing Crime of Black Imprisonment Committee to End the Marion Lockdown, 1995
Young Black Male Victims Bureau of Justice Statistics, December, 1994
Racial Disparities: in Federal Death Penalty Prosecutions 1988-1994 Death Penalty Information Center, 1994
Does the punishment fit the crime? Drug users and drunk drivers, questions of race and class Sentencing Project, May, 1993
Race of Prisoners Admitted to State and Federal Institutions, 1926-86 Bureau of Justice Statistics, May, 1991
Buckle of the Death Belt: The Death Penalty in Microcosm (Chattahoochee Judicial District) Death Penalty Information Center, 1991
Death Penalty Sentencing: Research Indicates Pattern of Racial Disparities Government Accountability Office, February, 1990
A Question of Race II: New York and Its Neighbors A Look at the Incarceration of Whites and Minorities in the United States New York State Coalition for Criminal Justice, 1990
A Question of Race Minority/White Incarceration in New York State Center for Justice Education, January, 1987
Disproportionate Imprisonment of Blacks in the United States: Policy, Practice, Impact, and Change Prepared by Scott Christianson for the National Association of Blacks in Criminal Justice, March, 1982