What were the political and economic demands of the liberals?

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By the 1848 Revolution of the Liberals, we mean, the revolution led by the educated middle classes of Europe. Events of February 1848, in France brought about the abdication of the monarchy and a republic based on universal male franchise was formed. The social and economic ideas supported by the liberals are (i) Politically, it emphasised the concept of government by consent, abolition of autocracy and special privileges. (ii) Socially, the liberals supported the abolition of discrimination based on birth. (iii) Economically, it stood for the abolition of trade restrictions imposed by the state.

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The vast territory lying between the Black sea and the Adriatic sea comprising the modern states of Romania, Albania, Greece, Croatia, Bosnia- Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro was known as the Balkans. All these states were once the part of the Ottoman empire and were inhabited by people broadly known as Slavs. The spread of the ideas of Romantic nationalism and the disintegration of Ottoman empire made this region very explosive. The Balkans states were fiercely jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more territory at the expense of the others.

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In 1815, the European powers met at Vienna and tried to transform all the changes that came about in Europe during Napoleon's era. The four major proposals of the Vienna Congress were (i) The Bourbon dynasty, which had been deposed during the French Revolution, was restored to power and France lost the territories it had annexed. (ii) A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent the French expansion in future. Thus, the kingdom of the Netherlands, which included Belgium, was set up in the North and Genoa was added to Piedmont in the South. (iii) Prussia was given important new territories on its "Western frontiers, while Austria was given control of Northern Italy. (iv) The German confederation of 39 states that had been set up by Napoleon was left untouched.

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Romanticism referred to a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of national sentiment. Romantic artist and poets generally criticised the glorification of reason and science. They focussed on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings. Their effort was to create a sense of a shared collective heritage, a common cultural part as the basis of a nation. Some German Romantics like Johann Gottfried Herder thought that through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dance, the true spirit of the nation could, be popular is ed. They claimed that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people.

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(a) In 1834, a Customs Union or Zollvereih 'was formed at the initiative of Prussia. It was joined by the most of the German States. (b) The aim of Zollverein was to bind the Germans economically, into a nation. The Union abolished-the tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies' from over thirty to only two. It helped to awaken and raise national sentiment through a fusion, of individual and provincial interests. The German people realised that a free economic system was the only means to engender national feeling.

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(a) Nation State A nation stare is one in which the majority of its citizens and not only its rulers, came to develop a .sense of common identity, common language and shared history or descent. The most noticeable characteristic of nation-state is the degree to which they use the state as an instrument of national unity, in economic and social cultural life. (b) The two measures introduced by the French Revolutionaries were (i)A new French flag, the tricolour was chosen to replace the former royal standard. (ii) A centralised administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens.

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In the German regions a large number of political association came together in the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for all German National Assembly. Three features of Frankfurt Parliament. are (i) On 18th May, 1848, 831 elected representatives marched in the Frankfurt Parliament, convened in the church of St Paul. They drafted a Constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy Subject to a Parliament. (ii) When King of Prussia, Friedrich Wilhelm IV was offered the crown on these terms, he rejected it and opposed the elected assembly. (iii) The Parliament was dominated by the middle class who resisted the demands of workers and artisans and consequently lost their support. Ultimately Troops were called in and the assembly was forced to disband.

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(a) Giuseppe Garibaldi He was one of the most celebrated Italian freedom fighters. He came from a family engaged in coastal trade and was a sailor in the Merchant Navy. In 1833, he met Mazzini, joined the Young Italy Movement and participated in a republican uprising in Piedmont in 1834. The uprising was suppressed and Garibaldi had to flee to South America, where he lived in exile till 1848. (b) From the above passage, I have learnt the values like nationalism, patriotism and desire of becoming independent. This also shows the power of self-dependent.

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Initially the French Armies were welcomed as harbingers of liberty. But the initial enthusiasm soon, turned to hostility. Because people gradually understood that the new administrative arrangements did not go hand in hand with political freedom. The four factors which seemed to outweigh the advantages of the administrative changes are (i) Increased taxation on people. (ii) Strict censorship on printing media and books. (iii) Forced conscription into the French Armies to satisfy its imperialist ambition. (iv) Restriction on Freedom.

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The revolutionary/principles incorporated by Napoleon in the administration of France during his region were (i) Napoleon introduced the Civil Code of 1804, which is known as the Napoleonic Code. It did away with all privilegs based on birth, established equality before the law and secured the right to property to all. (ii) In many parts of Europe like Dutch Republic, Switzerland, Italy and Germany, Napoleon simplified the administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues. (iii) Napoleon removed the guild restrictions from the towns. (iv) Napoleon improved the transport and communication systems, standardised weights and measures and introduced common national currency which were appreciated by peasants, artisans workers and businessmen of France. Ans. Italy had a long history of political fragmentation. This is shown in the points below (i) Italians were scattered over several dynastic states as well as the multi-national Habsburg empire. (ii) During the middle of the 19th century, Italy was divided into seven states of which only one, Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian Princely House. (iii) The North under Austrian Habsburgs, the center was ruled by the pope and the Southern regions were under the domination of the Bourbon kings of Spain. (iv) Even the Italian language had not any standard common form. It had many regional and local variations.

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Ernest Renan was a French philosopher, who outlined the attributes of a nation are as follows (i) A nation is not formed by a common language, race, religion or territory. (ii) To form a nation, social capital, common glories and deeds of the past and common will are necessary. A nation is the culmination of a long past of endeavours, sacrifice and devotion. (iii) Nation is a large scale solidarity, its existence is a daily plebiscite and its inhabitants have the right to be consulted. (iv) The existence of a nation is not only a good thing, but also a necessity. (v) A nation has never any real interest in annexing or holding on to a country against its will. Nations are important because existence of the nation is a guarantee of liberty. Liberty would be lost if the world had only one law and only one master.

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The development of nationalism does not come about only through wars and territorial expansion. Culture plays an important role in the creation of national identity. Culture of a country includes its language, art and poetry, stories and music popular tradition-everything. Philosophers think that to know folk culture, i.e., tradition of a country is an essential for a nation-building. Because these traditions of folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances of a country bind the people by the thread of togetherness and pride. They give the feeling of culturally one United Nation. Languages too plays an important role in developing nationalist sentiment. After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools in Poland and Russian language was imposed everywhere. Many members of the clergy in Poland began to use 'Polish' language. The use of Polish came to be seen as a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance. Thus, the language and popular traditions of a country help in the creation of national identity.

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The cause of the 'Silesian Weavers' uprising was due to the cheating of the weavers by the contractors. In 1845, the weavers raised a revolt against the contractors as the contractors drastically reduced their payments. The viewpoint of the journalist Wilhelm Wolf for this uprising was - a large crowd of weavers reached the house of the contractor and demanded higher wages. They were not treated well, so a group of the crowd entered the contractors house forcibly and destroyed the furniture, window panes and plundered it. The contractor fled with his family to a neighbouring village but did not get shelter. After 24 hours, he returned back with army and eleven weavers were shot dead. This shows that the viewpoint of the journalist was based against the weavers and in favour of the contractor. He did not understand the misery of the weavers properly.

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I have worked very hard to supply the woven cloth in time, but received very little payment than what was agreed to by the contractor. Since other weavers had also got less payment, on the afternoon of 4th June, I went along with my partner and other weavers to the contractor's home for asking for better wages for our weaving. Our demands were scornfully refused and we were even threatened that no more work would be given to us if we did not work at the same rate as what was paid to us. Some of my fellow weavers got angry at this and broke the window panes of the contractor's house, barged inside and damaged his furniture and crockery. Some weavers also broke open his store of woven cloth and tore it all up. Seeing this, the contractor ran away from the house with his family to a nearby village, but there also he did not get shelter. Next day, the contractor returned with soldiers from the army, who fired at our group of weavers, killing eleven of us. I was injured in the leg by a bullet and now, I am nursing my wounds as I write this.

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(a) The liberal politician Carl Welcker, an elected member of the Frankfurt Parliament, says. That (i) Woman is weaker dependent, timid and requires the protection of man and her sphere is the home where she keeps children and does household duties such as cooking, washing, and cleaning, etc. (iii) Equality between the sexes - of woman and man would, only endanger harmony and destroy the dignity of the family. According to Louise Otto-Peters, apolitical activist and founder of a woman's journal and a feminist political association, men try to gain freedom and liberty for all. Actually their untiring efforts, are intended for the welfare of only one half of humanity that is men. She advocated that liberty can not be, divided among the men and women. An Anonymous writer says that It is unjust to discriminate against women on the basis of gender The women should not be deprived of the right to vote while an illiterate man has given the right to vote. The above discussion shows that Louise Otto-Peters and the anonymous writer advocate for women's rights of liberty and equality, but the first writer does not favour woman's rights of liberty and equality. (b) From the given statement, I have learnt the values like gender equality and women s rights. This also indicates that supporting gender inequality is a crime.

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Count Cavour was the Chief Minister of the kingdom of Piedmont and led the movement of Italian unification. The striking characteristics of Cavour which were responsible for his role in the unification of Italy were (i) Patriotism. (ii)Excellent organisational skill. (iii) Strong convincing power, tactfulness and diplomacy. (iv) Strong inclination towards his goals.

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In 1858, Italy was divided into seven states, with the North being under the Austrian Habsburgs, the centre being ruled by, the Pope and the Southern regions being under the domination of the Bourbon kings of Spain. Only one state, Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian Princely House. The Italian language also had not acquired one common form and had many regional and local variations. So, people living in these regions, except Sardinia-Piedmont, would not have thought of themselves as Italians. The first region to become a part of united Italy was Lombardy (1859). The last region to join was the Papal State in 1870. The largest number of states joined in 1860.

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(a) Giuseppe Mazzini He was an Italian revolutionary, who was born in Genoa in 1807. He was sent into exile at the age of 24 in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria. He founded two secret societies, namely Young Italy and Young Europe. He inspired the young members of these societies to involve in revolutionary activities. Following his ideas and on the model of his secret societies, more such societies were set up in Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland. Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich once describe him as 'the most dangerous energy of our social order'. (b) Count Camilo de Cavour He was the Chief Minister of Piedmont. He was neither a democratic nor a revolutionary. But he led the movement to unify the regions of Italy. Through tact and diplomacy, he entered into an alliance with France and succeded in defeating Austrian forces in 1859. (c) The Greek War of Independence It was a successful war waged by Greek revolutionaries between 1821 to 1832 against the Ottoman empire. Greek nationalists were influenced by the idea of liberal nationalism. They were supported by the West European countries in this war of independence. Further, the poets and artists, who added romanticism to the Greek struggle of independence, participated in this war against the Ottoman empire. With the Treaty of Constantinople in July 1832, Greece was recognised as an independent nation. (d) Frankfurt Parliament The German middle class decided to vote for an all German National Assembly in 1848 and 831 persons were elected. They comprised the National Assembly. The assembly decided to organise the Parliament at Frankfurt in the church of St Paul. Thus, on 18th May, 1848, the famous Frankfurt Parliament was convened. The assembly decided that the German nation would be a constitutional monarchy controlled by Parliament and offered the crown to the Prussian King, Friedrich Wilhelm IV. But he rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly. The Parliament also faced strong opposition from the aristocracy and military as it was dominated by the middle class who resisted the demands of workers and artisans. As result of this, the middle class lost their mass support. Ultimately, the monarchy and military combined together with the aristocracy and won over the liberal nationalist middle class. This forced the assembly to disband. Therefore, the Frankfurt Parliament is famous in history as a failure of liberalism and a victory of the monarchy. (e) Role of Women in Nationalise Struggles Women played very significant roles in nationalist struggles all over the world. They actively participated in movements, faced the tortures of police, stood by their male counterparts, spread the idea of liberal nationalism and also were members of various revolutionary organisations. A good example is the French Revolution, in which men and women participated equally. Even, the concept of liberty is personified as a woman. Liberal nationalism proposed the idea of universal suffrage, leading to women's active participation in nationalist movements in Europe. In spite of this, they were given little or no political rights or right to vote till the end of the 19th century. Note This type of questions will not be asked in the examination, only its one or two sub-parts will be asked.

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(a) The French revolutionaries took the following steps to create a sense of collective identity among the French people They introduced the ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and Ie citoyen (the citizen), emphasising the concept of a united community enjoying equal rights under a Constitution. (ii) They choose a new French flag, the tri colour, to replace the royal standard. (iii) The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly. (iv) In the name of the nation, new hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated. (v) They established a centralised administrative system, which formulated uniform laws for all citizens. (vi) They adopted a uniform system of weights and measures. (vii) All internal custom duties were abolished. (viii) They promoted the French language, as spoken and written in Paris and discouraged regional dialects. They declared that it was the mission and destiny of the French nation to liberate people of Europe from despotism. What is meant was that they would help other people of Europe to become nation states like them. (b) From the struggle of French Revolutionaries, I have learnt the values of patriotism, nationalism, equality, fraternity and national integration.

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Napoleon introduced the following changes to make the administrative system more efficient in the areas ruled by him (i) He established the Civil Code of 1804, also known as the Napoleonic Code. This did away with all privileges based on birth. It established equality before law and secured the right to property. (ii) He simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues. (iii) In towns, guild systems were removed. Transport and communication systems were Due to the above measures, peasants, artisans, businessmen and workers were enjoyed a new found freedom. Businessmen and small-scale producers realised that uniform laws, a common currency and standardised weights and measures would facilitate movement and exchange of goods between regions.

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The Frankfurt Parliament, which was convened in the church of St Paul on 18th May, 1848, was the first major step, towards the unification of German states. The other four stages towards the unification of Germany are (i) The liberal initiatives of nation building were repressed by the monarchy and big landlords of Prussia. From then Prussia took the initiative to unify Germany. (ii) Otto von Bismarck, the Chief Minister of Prussia, carried out the process of unification with the help of the Prussian Army and bureaucracy. Bismarck was convinced that the unification of Germany could be only achieved by the princes, not by the common people. He wanted to achieve his aim by merging Prussia into Germany. In 1867, Bismarck became the Chancellor of the North confederation. (iii) Bismarck's main objective was to unify Germany and was accomplished by three wars with Austria, Denmark and France which were fought in a brief period of seven years. (iv) These wars were ended with the victory of Prussia which helped in completing the process of German unification. On 18th January, 1871, in the Royal Palace of Versailles, the king of Prussia, Kaiser William I was crowned as the German emperor. It symbolised the birth of a united Germany.

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No, British nation was in existence before the 18th century. Different ethnic groups of people were there in the British Isles, such as English, Welsh, Scot and Irish. Each of these ethnic groups had its own cultural and political traditions. Nationalism in Britain was not the result of a sudden upheaval or revolution. It was due to a long drawn process. The English nation possessed the other three nations of the islands through a steady growth in property, wealth and power. Besides this, the English language, British Flag and National Anthem were promoted as national symbols to identify the nationality of the nation. The British Parliament became the Chief instrument to curb the power of the monarchy in 1688 through a bloodless revolution. The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland formed the United Kingdom of Great Britain. With the advent of English power, the English removed the cultural, political institutions of Scotland forcefully and the Scots were banned from speaking the Gaelic language and put on their national dress. There were two classes of the people in Ireland; Catholics and Protestants. The English liked the Protestants in comparison to Catholics. The English with the help of the Protestants supressed the Catholics and forcibly united Ireland with the United Kingdom in 1801. The symbols of the new Britain-the National Flag (Union Jack), the National Anthem (God Save our Noble King) and the English language were actively promoted. Scotland and Ireland became the subordinate partners of the United Kingdom.

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Nationalist tension emerged in the Balkans because the Balkan states were aspiring for nationalism. The Balkans was a region comprising modern day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro and their inhabitants were called Slavs. The major portion of the Balkans was under the Ottoman empire. All through the 19th century, the Ottoman empire attempted to remove the internal backwardness of the state and its people by adopting modern techniques, but could not succeed. There was jealousy among the Balkans states and each hoped to expand the boundaries to their land. The ideology of Europe was changed during this period and liberal democratic feelings became a narrow creed with limited ends. There were intolerance towards each other and they were always ready to fight a war. The European powers, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary and Britain were also interested to extend their own imperialism. During this period, these European powers were involved in an intense struggle over trade, colonies and naval and military might. Each power was keen on countering the hold of the other powers and extending its own control over the area. This led to a series of wars in the region and finally the First World War.

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Military general and first emperor of France, Napoleon was one of the most celebrated leaders in the history. His legal reform, the 'Napoleonic Code' has been a major influence on many civil laws, juridiction worldwide and he is best remembered for the Napoleonic wars. The positive attitudes of Napoleon were (i) His devotion towards equality. (ii) Restoration of natural rights. (iii) Demolition of privileges. (iv) Establishing uniformity in administration. (v) Inclination towards trench nationalism.

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The values that can be derived from the term liberalism are (i) Freedom for all and equality of all before the law. (ii) Freedom of expression viz, freedom of the press and freedom of association. (iii) Creation of a nation state on parliamentary principle, i.e., government by the people. (iv) Changes in the field of economy, i.e., abolition of state imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.

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