Grade Level: 7–8 Students will be introduced to the first African American Regiment that fought in the Civil War through a memorial sculpture by Augustus Saint-Gaudens. They will compare and contrast the experiences of these soldiers through their portrayal in letters, films (the motion picture, Glory, and a documentary film), and poetry, before writing their own poem using the sculpture as their inspiration.
 Augustus Saint-Gaudens U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Saint-Gaudens National Historic Site, Cornish, New Hampshire
Curriculum Connections
Materials
Warm-Up Questions What was one of the issues that started the Civil War? Why were abolitionists against slavery? Background At the beginning of the Civil War, Richard Harvey Cain, a student at Wilberforce University in Ohio, was among a group of black students who attempted to join the Union Army in Ohio. Cain was turned down. Below he writes about the events after the first shots were fired at Fort Sumter and the importance of the Massachusetts Fifty-fourth Regiment, one of the first Black military units to be organized in the North during the Civil War. I shall never forget the thrill that ran through my soul when I thought of the coming consequences of that shot. There were one hundred and fifteen of us students at the University, who, anxious to vindicate the stars and stripes, made up a company and offered our services to the Governor of Ohio; and sir, we were told that this is a white man’s war and that the Negro had nothing to do with it. Sir, we returned, docile, patient, waiting, casting our eyes to the Heavens whence help always comes. We knew that there would come a period in the history of this nation when our strong black arms would be needed. We waited patiently; we waited until Massachusetts, through her noble Governor, sounded the alarm, and we hastened to hear the summons and obey it. Letter by Richard Harvey Cain written at the time of the Civil War, quoted in Zak Mettger, Till Victory is Won: Black Soldiers in the Civil War (New York: Puffin Books, 1997), 2. As the United States grew in population and area in the 1800s, the issues of slavery and state’s rights increasingly divided the country. While factories in the North were drawing people from farms to towns and cities, at midcentury, the economy in the South remained tied to agriculture. Of the eleven million people living in the South in 1860, nearly four million were slaves, and most worked on farms. Abolitionists wanted to end slavery, but many people in the South believed in the states’ right to decide this issue. Slavery and its spread to the western frontier became two of the most argued issues in the country. In late 1860, South Carolina seceded from the Union, quickly followed by other southern states. Together they formed the Confederate States of America. When Confederate forces fired on the U.S. Army’s Fort Sumter in South Carolina on April 12, 1861, the Civil War began. As the war progressed, many black men decided to form their own regiments to fight for the Union. In 1862 Congress agreed to their enlistment and more than 186,000 African-American men signed up. They were not paid as much as white soldiers or were not paid at all, were given poor equipment, and often ran out of supplies. To make matters worse, Confederate soldiers threatened to enslave or kill any black soldiers they captured, and kill their white commanders. Overcoming these hardships, black soldiers proved themselves heroically in battle. They led raids, served as spies and scouts, fought in battles, and faced some of the worst confrontations in the war. They helped win the war for the Union. The Massachusetts Fifty-fourth Regiment, the one of the first African-American military units in the North, began recruitment in February 1863, one month after President Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation. The recruits came from twenty-four states; one-quarter of them slave states. Among the recruits were barbers, boatmen, laborers, cabinetmakers, a dentist, and a druggist. Some were as young as sixteen. Some were fathers enlisting with sons. Members of the regiment included Frederick Douglass’ two sons, the grandson of abolitionist Sojourner Truth, and William H. Carney, the first African American to win the Medal of Honor. Robert Gould Shaw, the white son of prominent Boston abolitionists, was appointed to command the regiment, as military policy did not allow black men to serve as officers. On May 28, the largest crowd in Boston’s history assembled to see the Fifty-fourth Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry Regiment march off to fight. Two months later, Shaw and one-third of his men died during the Union’s siege at Fort Wagner, one of the forts protecting Charleston, South Carolina, a bastion of the Confederacy. The brave conduct of this regiment inspired black men like Richard Harvey Cain to enlist in the Union forces. After the battle of Fort Wagner, proposals were made by men of the Fifty-fourth to erect a memorial. Sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens took almost a dozen years to create it. He began with the idea of an equestrian statue of the young Colonel Shaw. The plan evolved into a procession of black soldiers with their leader, moving together toward the goal of emancipation. The monument is cast in very high relief. To make each soldier individualized, Saint-Gaudens created forty heads using live models of different ages. Seen in profile are the mounted Colonel Shaw and rows of soldiers carrying rifles, packs, and canteens, all led by young drummer boys. Above the procession floats an angel holding an olive branch, symbolizing peace, and poppies, symbolizing death. Guided Practice
Activity Show students the motion picture Glory followed by a showing of any one of the historical documentaries related to the Massachusetts Fifty-fourth Regiment. As students watch, they should take notes that answer the following questions:
Extension Provide students with copies of four of the thirty or more poems that have been written about the memorial. Recommended poems are: Tell the students that these poems were inspired by both the Saint-Gaudens monument and the story of the Massachusetts Fifty-fourth Regiment. Students should be aware of the time period when these poems were written. Have four students volunteer to read the poem aloud while others follow along. After the listening/reading exercise ask students the following questions:
Then students will write their own poems about the sculpture, Shaw, or the Regiment. [back to top]
VA:Cn11.1.7 Analyze how response to art is influenced by understanding the time and place in which it was created, the available resources, and cultural uses. VA:Re7.2.7 Analyze multiple ways that images influence specific audiences. VA:Re8.1.7 Interpret art by analyzing art-making approaches, the characteristics of form and structure, relevant contextual information, subject matter, and use of media to identify ideas and mood conveyed. Page 2
Grade Level: 7–8 Students will be introduced to the first African American Regiment that fought in the Civil War through a memorial sculpture by Augustus Saint-Gaudens. They will compare and contrast the experiences of these soldiers through their portrayal in letters, films (the motion picture, Glory, and a documentary film), and poetry, before writing their own poem using the sculpture as their inspiration.
Augustus Saint-Gaudens U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Saint-Gaudens National Historic Site, Cornish, New Hampshire
Curriculum Connections
Materials
Warm-Up Questions What was one of the issues that started the Civil War? Why were abolitionists against slavery? Background At the beginning of the Civil War, Richard Harvey Cain, a student at Wilberforce University in Ohio, was among a group of black students who attempted to join the Union Army in Ohio. Cain was turned down. Below he writes about the events after the first shots were fired at Fort Sumter and the importance of the Massachusetts Fifty-fourth Regiment, one of the first Black military units to be organized in the North during the Civil War. I shall never forget the thrill that ran through my soul when I thought of the coming consequences of that shot. There were one hundred and fifteen of us students at the University, who, anxious to vindicate the stars and stripes, made up a company and offered our services to the Governor of Ohio; and sir, we were told that this is a white man’s war and that the Negro had nothing to do with it. Sir, we returned, docile, patient, waiting, casting our eyes to the Heavens whence help always comes. We knew that there would come a period in the history of this nation when our strong black arms would be needed. We waited patiently; we waited until Massachusetts, through her noble Governor, sounded the alarm, and we hastened to hear the summons and obey it. Letter by Richard Harvey Cain written at the time of the Civil War, quoted in Zak Mettger, Till Victory is Won: Black Soldiers in the Civil War (New York: Puffin Books, 1997), 2. As the United States grew in population and area in the 1800s, the issues of slavery and state’s rights increasingly divided the country. While factories in the North were drawing people from farms to towns and cities, at midcentury, the economy in the South remained tied to agriculture. Of the eleven million people living in the South in 1860, nearly four million were slaves, and most worked on farms. Abolitionists wanted to end slavery, but many people in the South believed in the states’ right to decide this issue. Slavery and its spread to the western frontier became two of the most argued issues in the country. In late 1860, South Carolina seceded from the Union, quickly followed by other southern states. Together they formed the Confederate States of America. When Confederate forces fired on the U.S. Army’s Fort Sumter in South Carolina on April 12, 1861, the Civil War began. As the war progressed, many black men decided to form their own regiments to fight for the Union. In 1862 Congress agreed to their enlistment and more than 186,000 African-American men signed up. They were not paid as much as white soldiers or were not paid at all, were given poor equipment, and often ran out of supplies. To make matters worse, Confederate soldiers threatened to enslave or kill any black soldiers they captured, and kill their white commanders. Overcoming these hardships, black soldiers proved themselves heroically in battle. They led raids, served as spies and scouts, fought in battles, and faced some of the worst confrontations in the war. They helped win the war for the Union. The Massachusetts Fifty-fourth Regiment, the one of the first African-American military units in the North, began recruitment in February 1863, one month after President Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation. The recruits came from twenty-four states; one-quarter of them slave states. Among the recruits were barbers, boatmen, laborers, cabinetmakers, a dentist, and a druggist. Some were as young as sixteen. Some were fathers enlisting with sons. Members of the regiment included Frederick Douglass’ two sons, the grandson of abolitionist Sojourner Truth, and William H. Carney, the first African American to win the Medal of Honor. Robert Gould Shaw, the white son of prominent Boston abolitionists, was appointed to command the regiment, as military policy did not allow black men to serve as officers. On May 28, the largest crowd in Boston’s history assembled to see the Fifty-fourth Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry Regiment march off to fight. Two months later, Shaw and one-third of his men died during the Union’s siege at Fort Wagner, one of the forts protecting Charleston, South Carolina, a bastion of the Confederacy. The brave conduct of this regiment inspired black men like Richard Harvey Cain to enlist in the Union forces. After the battle of Fort Wagner, proposals were made by men of the Fifty-fourth to erect a memorial. Sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens took almost a dozen years to create it. He began with the idea of an equestrian statue of the young Colonel Shaw. The plan evolved into a procession of black soldiers with their leader, moving together toward the goal of emancipation. The monument is cast in very high relief. To make each soldier individualized, Saint-Gaudens created forty heads using live models of different ages. Seen in profile are the mounted Colonel Shaw and rows of soldiers carrying rifles, packs, and canteens, all led by young drummer boys. Above the procession floats an angel holding an olive branch, symbolizing peace, and poppies, symbolizing death. Guided Practice
Activity Show students the motion picture Glory followed by a showing of any one of the historical documentaries related to the Massachusetts Fifty-fourth Regiment. As students watch, they should take notes that answer the following questions:
Extension Provide students with copies of four of the thirty or more poems that have been written about the memorial. Recommended poems are: Tell the students that these poems were inspired by both the Saint-Gaudens monument and the story of the Massachusetts Fifty-fourth Regiment. Students should be aware of the time period when these poems were written. Have four students volunteer to read the poem aloud while others follow along. After the listening/reading exercise ask students the following questions:
Then students will write their own poems about the sculpture, Shaw, or the Regiment. [back to top]
VA:Cn11.1.7 Analyze how response to art is influenced by understanding the time and place in which it was created, the available resources, and cultural uses. VA:Re7.2.7 Analyze multiple ways that images influence specific audiences. VA:Re8.1.7 Interpret art by analyzing art-making approaches, the characteristics of form and structure, relevant contextual information, subject matter, and use of media to identify ideas and mood conveyed. Page 3
Grade Level: 5–6 Students will explore life on a nineteenth-century farm by analyzing a painting of Mahantango Valley farm and researching the Manual of Agriculture (1862). They will then write a journal entry of a day in the life of a young person on this farm.
American 19th Century National Gallery of Art, Gift of Edgar William and Bernice Chrysler Garbisch
Curriculum Connections
Materials
Warm-Up Question What activities are taking place on this farm? Background A complete farm ought to have woodland, pasture land, meadow or grassland, arable land, an orchard, a garden spot, and space for roads. It should have a farmer’s house, a barn or stable for horses, oxen, sheep, and swine, and for crops, a tool house, a dairy, fences, walls or hedges, and wells or springs. It would be desirable to have a stream running through it or by it, and to have a pond or swamp connected with or belonging to it. A husbandman* also wants capital** to stock his farm with cattle and other animals, and to furnish it with carts, wagons, ploughs, and other tools. To carry on a farm successfully, a good deal of knowledge and a high degree of intelligence are necessary. . . *farmer George B. Emerson and Charles L. Flint, Manual of Agriculture, for the School, the Farm, and the Fireside (Boston, 1862), ii, 1-2. Courtesy of the University of Michigan University Library, and the Making of America project. In the nineteenth century, many farms were located in river valleys where nutrients from rivers made the soil fertile and where the proximity to water meant easier irrigation and transportation of crops and livestock. The valley depicted in Mahantango Valley Farm is located in central Pennsylvania and was settled mostly by Germans. The area produced primarily wheat, corn, and fruit, as well as livestock. The Mahantango River runs into the Susquehanna River, making the area a good location for the shipment of produce and other goods to and from large cities, such as nearby Harrisburg, the state capital. Occasionally, a farmer wanted a record of what a lifetime of hard work had achieved. He or she would commission an artist to record the farm, including its property, buildings, livestock, and workers. The artist would give the maximum amount of information in the clearest manner possible. In Mahantango Valley Farm, the artist used an aerial viewpoint to capture receding rows of harvested fields as well as descriptive three-quarter views of the various farm buildings. There are great disparities of scale; huge cows and a bull dominate the yard of the farmhouse, and large birds, presumably pigeons roost on its roof. The artist included a number of details that describe the farm and life at the time. It seems to be an expansive property, with wooden fences and stonewalls separating the fields, and various outbuildings delineating its boundaries. The harvested fields indicate that the farm was largely devoted to raising crops, though it did produce livestock. While men hunt and ride horses, children play a game of hoop and stick. Paintings such as Mahantango Valley Farm became records of daily activities and familiar places and embodied a sense of celebration about the productivity of the land and its seemingly boundless expanse and beauty.
Pennsylvania German Chest National Gallery of Art, Index of American Design
Showing resourcefulness in the face of scarce or expensive materials, this artist worked with materials at hand. In this case, the farm scene was painted on a fabric window shade. While the artist remains unknown, he or she used primarily bright green and brick red colors that are similar to those in Pennsylvania German painted furniture (see depiction at right). It is possible, then, that the painter was of German descent.
Guided Practice
Activity Some farmers kept a reference manual on hand to help when years of farming experience and advice from neighboring farmers failed. One such text was the 1862 Manual of Agriculture, for the School, the Farm, and the Fireside. The book, meant as both a reference for farmers and an educational text for students, lauds the vocation of farming: Without agriculture there can be no commerce or manufactures, no population or prosperity. Every one, of whatever vocation, is interested in its welfare, and every man, woman and child, should have some knowledge of the fundamental principles of this most useful art. Part of the manual’s purpose, was “to implant in the minds of youth an abiding love for this honorable employment.” At a time in which some young people were beginning to turn away from farm life in favor of city living, the text was also meant as a rally cry for farming. Its 306 pages described the location, equipment, crops, and livestock of the ideal farm. It had a subject index that allowed a farmer or student to access information such as how to ripen apples, manage the dairy, prepare bedding for cattle, and included additional information on such topics as plant diseases and uses for hay. Students will now use the online version of the Manual of Agriculture to answer the following questions:
Extension Students will write a journal entry imagining they live on this farm. What daily tasks and chores would you help with on a farm? How would you dress? What would you eat? What would you do for fun? How would you get around?
VA:Cn11.1.6 Analyze how art reflects changing times, traditions, resources, and cultural uses. VA:Re7.1.6 Identify and interpret works of art or design that reveal how people live around the world and what they value. VA:Re8.1.6 Interpret art by distinguishing between relevant and non-relevant contextual information and analyzing subject matter, characteristics of form and structure, and use of media to identify ideas and mood conveyed. Page 4
Philip Johnson (artist), American, active c. 1935, Anonymous Craftsman (object maker), Helena Penrose and J. H. Edgette (object owner), Toy Wagon, 1935/1942, watercolor, pen and ink, and gouache on paper, Index of American Design, 1943.8.7802 Overview American toys were originally made in the home, but by 1750, artisans who specialized in making toys were established in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Charleston, and other cities. From the 1830s onward, commercial mass production of toys was a flourishing industry in the United States.
Mina Lowry (artist), American, 1894 - 1942, Anonymous Craftsman (object maker), Helena Penrose and J. H. Edgette (object owner), Rocking Horse, c. 1940, watercolor, graphite, and gouache on paperboard, Index of American Design, 1943.8.7826 The rocking horse, or hobbyhorse, has survived in many versions. This nineteenth-century example is made of pine painted with oil colors. The two parallel rockers are each cut in profile from a single piece of wood. The actual form of the horse is incidental in this case: a horse's head and neck, cut in profile, are attached to the forward end of the rocker. The harness and ears are leather and fastened on with tacks. This rocking horse is essentially a low-back Windsor chair with splayed legs fastened to a rocking platform; since the chair is more complex than the horse, it is possible that the craftsman was a chair maker by trade.
Mina Lowry (artist), American, 1894 - 1942, Benjamin P. Crandall (object maker), Helena Penrose and J. H. Edgette (object owner), Rocking Horse, c. 1941, watercolor and graphite on paperboard, Index of American Design, 1943.8.15735 A true rocking horse, this piece is primitive in construction, yet its design is vigorous and spirited. The stylized, round body is actually a single wooden log, while the head and neck are carved from another single block. the flat, stick legs are mortised into the underside of the body. The horse is mounted on a pair of rockers. This rocking horse was made between 1853 and 1856 by Benjamin P. Crandall of New York City; his name appears on the under surface of the horse. Like many other toy makers, Crandall did not produce toys exclusively and was listed also as a carpenter and maker of wagons, carriages, and perambulators.
Mina Lowry (artist), American, 1894 - 1942, Anonymous Craftsman (object maker), American Folk Art Gallery (object owner), Toy Horse, c. 1937, watercolor, gouache, and graphite on paperboard, Index of American Design, 1943.8.13992 This small horse -- only twelve inches high -- could not have been a hobbyhorse, but it was a delightful toy in the hobbyhorse style. Made about 1835 in Pennsylvania, it was carved from a single piece of pine. The eyes, nostrils, hooves, and horns are painted. Iron nails driven into the top of the neck keep a horizontal crack from opening further.
Michael Fallon (artist), American, active c. 1935, Anonymous Craftsman (object maker), Vera Manseau (object owner), Toy Streetcar, c. 1942, watercolor and graphite on paperboard, Index of American Design, 1943.8.7804 Pull toys, set on wheels, provided animation to heighten a child's pleasure. Pull toys were frequently made of wood, as in this streetcar model of about 1885. Inscribed with the owner's name, Vera, this handmade toy is of pine. The sides have sawn-out decorations of crescents, and the windows of the ends and cupola are backed with colored glass. There is a hole on top to insert a candle.
Frank Budash (artist), American, active c. 1935, Anonymous Craftsman (object maker), Jean Lipman (object owner), Dachshund, 1935/1942, watercolor, graphite, and pen and ink on paperboard, Index of American Design, 1943.8.7811 Another pull toy is this dachshund of about 1880. Loosely jointed, it undoubtedly once had wheels under the legs so that it could move along a flat surface with its body undulating from side to side.
Betty Jean Davis (artist), American, active c. 1935, Anonymous Craftsman (object maker), Mrs. W.E. Buller (object owner), Handcarved Toy, c. 1939, watercolor, graphite, and colored pencil on paper, Index of American Design, 1943.8.11062 Constantly seeking ways of adding animation and novelty to their products, toy makers invented many ingenious products. Pennsylvannia German artists were especially creative in this respect. The hand-operated wooden toy shown here consists of two jointed figures that revolve around a pole when the handle is turned. Made about 1835, the toy is hand-carved of pine. The wood has a natural finish, but the features are tinted.
Ben Lassen (artist), American, 1904 - 1968, Anonymous Craftsman (object maker), Helena Penrose and J. H. Edgette (object owner), Noah's Ark and Animals, 1935/1942, watercolor, graphite, and gouache on paperboard, Index of American Design, 1943.8.7806 Noah's Ark with its many animals has been a favorite toy of children for generations. This example was probably made by a Pennsylvania German craftsman about 1835. The colorful ark consists of pieces of pine glued together. It has one sliding panel to let the animals go inside. Fifteen animals are whittled from pine and painted in polychrome oil colors. The ark is decorated with a painted and stenciled design in mat polychrome. Noah's Ark was known as "Sunday toy": children were not allowed to play with most toys on Sunday, but Noah's Ark was an exception because of its biblical subject matter.
Eugene Bartz (artist), American, active c. 1935, Anonymous Craftsman (object maker), E.B. Trimpey (object owner), Miniature Oxcart, c. 1939, watercolor and graphite on paperboard, Index of American Design, 1943.8.7805 Vehicular toys record the history of transportation in the United States. This is a miniature covered wagon, pulled by oxen. It imitates the primitive oxcarts in general use in the 1860s and 1870s and was made by an unknown pioneer settler near Stoughton, Wisconsin. The model is hand-carved of pine; the covering of the wagon is linen.
Alice Stearns (artist), American, active c. 1935, W.H. Large (object maker), Boodman-Walker (object owner), Toy Locomotive, c. 1936 watercolor and graphite on paper, Index of American Design, 1943.8.16721 The production of toy locomotives and toy trains was eventually extended to comprise an entire railway system in miniature. This locomotive and tender are made of wood and date from about 1850. Like its real counterpart of the day, this model had a name, The Fabyan. The original engine ran on the mountain division of the Boston and Maine Railroad from Concord, New Hampshire, to the White Mountains during the period of about 1850 to 1860.
Frances Lichten (artist), American, active c. 1935, Anonymous Craftsman (object maker), Miss Margaret Bream (object owner), Toy Warship, 1935/1942, watercolor and graphite on paper, Index of American Design, 1943.8.13006 Ship models appeared frequently as children's toys; this one of hand-carved, painted wood is mounted on wheels to function as a pull toy. A particularly colorful and charming example, it dates from the early nineteenth century and is of Pennsylvania German origin. The model imitates a warship, and the figures of soldiers are appropriately costumed.
William Pollman (artist), American, active c. 1935, Anonymous Craftsman (object maker), Wells Historical Museum (object owner), Model of a Side-Wheeler, 1935/1942, watercolor, gouache, and graphite on paperboard, Index of American Design, 1943.8.7803 With the introduction of tin toys about 1840, more complicated methods of animation were developed. This brightly painted model of a side-wheeler, made of both wood and tin, has a windup mechanism that turns the paddle wheels.
Charles Henning (artist), American, active c. 1935, Anonymous Craftsman (object maker), Helena Penrose and J. H. Edgette (object owner), Toy Locomotive, c. 1940, watercolor and graphite on paperboard, Index of American Design, 1943.8.13989 This locomotive is made from tinned sheet iron painted with oil colors and touches of gilt; it is fitted with a clock spring for propulsion. Clockwork mechanisms reached a peak in the twenty-five years following the Civil War. Locomotives were among the most popular clockwork toys. This toy dates from the third quarter of the nineteenth century. The cowcatcher in front, the eagle on the headlight, and the broad funnel characterize an early stage in the development of the American locomotive. A bell (now missing) was originally suspended from the scrolling frame arched across the top of the boiler. The locomotive runs on four cast iron wheels. In place of spokes, the wheels have ornate tracery.
Henry Granet (artist), American, active c. 1935, Ned J. Burns and Rudolf Bauss (object maker), Museum of the City of New York (object owner), Toy Milk Wagon, c. 1937, watercolor and graphite on paperboard, Index of American Design, 1943.8.17307 This milk wagon is made from a combination of materials: the horse and figure are plaster, the wagon is wood, and the large milk cans and dipper are tin. The wagon dates from 1870. Before that time, milk was delivered from house to house by farm wagons. The Lake Wagon Company built the first vehicle to be used exclusively for milk delivery in New York City. This type of wagon then remained in general use until it was replaced by the closed wagon. Milk was dipped from the large cans into pitchers brought to the driver by housewives.
Charles Henning (artist), American, active c. 1935, Anonymous Craftsman (object maker), Stewart Klonis (object owner), Toy Fire Engine, c. 1942, watercolor, pen and ink, and graphite on paper, Index of American Design, 1943.8.16910 This toy model is an elegant and meticulous example of a nineteenth-century horse-drawn fire engine. The engine consists of a vertical cylindrical boiler at the back mounted on two pierced wheels. Cast iron was used for this model. While cast iron had been used earlier in the century for some toys and for parts such as wheels, miniature vehicles made entirely of iron did not appear until the 1880s. The toy was made between about 1885 and 1900 by the Ives Company of Bridgeport, Connecticut, a pioneer toy maker whose products are considered by collectors to be among the finest made. The name "Phoenix," cast in relief on the face of the door at the back of the boiler, was frequently used by Ives to identify its toys.
Philip Johnson (artist), American, active c. 1935, and Mildred Ford (artist), American, active c. 1935, Anonymous Craftsman (object maker), Helena Penrose and J. H. Edgette (object owner), Toy Kitchen, 1935/1942, watercolor, pen and ink, and graphite on paperboard, Index of American Design, 1943.8.7798 Miniature rooms are among the choicest items in the eyes of collectors. Here is a kitchen, only ten inches high, made of tinned sheet iron. One wall has been entirely omitted, as in a doll's house, to allow a complete view of the interior. A red-painted stove and hood are on the back wall, and a working pump is on the side wall. Some kitchen utensils are on the stove and floor; others hang on the three walls from hooks or are placed on racks.
Isidore Danziger (artist), American, active c. 1935, Anonymous Craftsman (object maker), Helena Penrose and J. H. Edgette (object owner), Mechanical Toy, c. 1937, watercolor and graphite on paper, Index of American Design, 1943.8.15665 This hollow, articulated, or jointed, figure of a boy illustrates the rather complicated animation that could be produced with spring mechanisms. The windup key is located on his left side; it is attached to a spring inside the body. As the spring releases, the arms revolve. Simultaneously, the upper part of the figure, which is articulated at the waist, moves from side to side. The combined actions of arms and body move the figure around on its feet. The figure, painted with oil colors, dates from the late nineteenth century.
Stanley Chin (artist), American, active c. 1935, Anonymous Craftsman (object maker), Helena Penrose and J. H. Edgette (object owner), Toy Bell Cart, c. 1941, watercolor and graphite on paperboard, Index of American Design, 1943.8.16666 Toy makers did not ignore children's appreciation of sound. Many toys incorporated a sound device of some sort, and in certain cases even musical notes were played. Toys like this bell cart of about 1860 were a special delight for children. Such objects, made from metal, combined sound with the old pull toy system of motion. In this case, a cast iron clapper strikes inside the bell as the toy is pulled along by a string. The cart consists of two cast zinc wheels with pierced designs of repeated heart shapes; the bell between is attached to the round iron axle. The bell is fashioned in two halves, of nickel-plated brass. The horse is die stamped from two pieces of tinned sheet iron and soldered together. Traces of paint indicate the horse was originally painted black and decorated with touches of oil color.
Mina Lowry (artist), American, 1894 - 1942, Anonymous Craftsman (object maker), Miss Vanderslip (object owner), Man with Cello, 1935/1942, watercolor, graphite, and gouache on paper, Index of American Design, 1943.8.15664 Spring or "clockwork" mechanisms were sometimes used to produce sounds in toys as well as to make them move. Music boxes were operated by this type of action, as is this mechanical figure of a man with a cello. When the toy is wound, the musician nods and moves his bow. The toy, dating from the late nineteenth century, plays an old-fashioned dance tune.
Frank McEntee (artist), American, active c. 1935, Anonymous Craftsman (object maker), Mrs. E.L. Blinstrub (object owner), Squeak Toy Kitten, c. 1938, watercolor and graphite on paperboard, Index of American Design, 1943.8.15670 Another kind of toy that emitted a sound was the squeak toy. An example is this kitten holding a fiddle. Such toys were made in a wide variety of birds and beasts. The figure is mounted on a small bellows which, when depressed, produces a sound suggestive of the animal's natural call.
Pearl Torell (artist), American, active c. 1935, J. and E. Stevens and Co. (object maker), F.W. Wieder (object owner), Toy Bank: "Teddy and the Bear", 1935/1942, watercolor and graphite on paperboard, Index of American Design, 1943.8.8456 Perhaps the most avidly collected toys of all are mechanical banks. Simple cast iron banks with no animation were first manufactured just after the Civil War. With the development of spring mechanisms, many intricate and ingenious models appeared. Mechanical banks flourished between about 1870 and 1910. In this example, dated 1906, a coin is placed in the gun; when the lever is pressed, the coin is shot into a slot in the tree trunk and the bear's head springs up. The toy is derived from a famous event: Theodore Roosevelt, on a hunting expedition in Mississippi, refused to shoot a bear cub. The cartoonist Clifford Berryman was present and immortalized the incident in the next day's newspaper; thus, the "Teddy bear" was born. This bank was made by the Steven Company Iron Foundry of Cromwell, Connecticut.
William O. Fletcher (artist), American, active c. 1935, Anonymous Craftsman (object maker), C.K. Sturtevant (object owner), Toy Bank: Frog, c. 1938, watercolor, graphite, and gouache on paper, Index of American Design, 1943.8.8483 The mechanical bank had a special purpose as a child's toy: it made saving fun; thrift was turned into a game. The spring and lever action was well suited to a wide range of subjects. The bank shown here consists of a bullfrog sitting on a cylinder whose walls are pierced in a latticework design. The frog's right front foot rests on a spring; when the foot is pressed down, the frog's eyes roll and its lower jaw opens to receive coins. Foundries produced mechanical toy banks of cast iron by the millions between about 1870 and 1910. This piece was issued a patent on August 20, 1872.
Edward Strzalkowski (artist), American, active c. 1935, Anonymous Craftsman (object maker), Paul McPharlin (object owner), Puppet: "Punch", c. 1937, watercolor, graphite, and pen and ink on paperboard, Index of American Design, 1943.8.1801 Toy makers have found numerous ways of animating their products, and puppets, activated by sticks or strings, are perfect examples of toys in motion. This is Punch, the villainous hero of the English puppet play, Punch and Judy, popular for a time in America. Dated about 1870, Punch has a carved wooden head and hands, fur wig, and an elaborate costume of velvet, corduroy, and cotton. The puppet is manipulated by means of a stick that extends into the head.
Hilda Olson (artist), American, active c. 1935, Walter Deaves (object maker), Perry Dilley (object owner), Puppet: Bull, c. 1940, watercolor and graphite on paperboard, Index of American Design, 1943.8.16667 The repertoire of puppets is an extensive one and includes many characters and animals. This bull puppet of 1890 is particularly appealing. It is made of a cloth with a furry texture. The strings for operating the puppet are clearly visible here. Puppets have a long history, beginning as articulated stick figures in ancient Egypt, India, Greece, and Rome. During the Middle Ages, puppets were used in miracle plays. And in early America, puppet shows provided entertainment in remote frontier areas.
Eugene Croe (artist), American, active c. 1935, Anonymous Craftsman (object maker), Mrs. Donald Boudeman (object owner), Doll Buggy, c. 1937, watercolor, graphite, and gouache on paperboard, Index of American Design, 1943.8.15266 Doll furniture and accessories must be included among the toy replicas of the adult world. This doll buggy, of about 1867, is made of wood and is styled like a cabriolet, or horse carriage. The hood, or calash, is fringed.
Beverly Chichester (artist), American, active c. 1935, Anonymous Craftsman (object maker), Edison Institute of Technology (object owner), Doll Sleigh, c. 1937, watercolor, graphite, and gouache on paper, Index of American Design, 1943.8.15911 This doll's sleigh of about 1887 has painted decorations similar to those found on children's sleds of the period. It is wood with metal wire runners. The lining is blue velvet.
Wayne White (artist), American, 1890 - 1978, Carpenter Davis (object maker), American Chicago Historical Society (object owner), Sled, c. 1940, watercolor, graphite, and gouache on paperboard, Index of American Design, 1943.8.7825 This is a child's sled made of pine and poplar wood with oak struts. The sled is painted and includes a butterfly motif in white. It must have been made for a girl, since the name "Lettie Augusta Davis" is painted on the top in white letters, but such coasting sleds were usually intended for boys at that time. The sled was made in 1874 by Carpenter Davis. More Index of American Design Features Selected Works Costumes Dolls Folk Arts of the Spanish Southwest Furniture Metalwork Pennsylvania German Folk Art Pottery Shaker Crafts Textiles Toys Woodcarving Page 5
Grade Level: 7–8 A promotional painting by George Inness will introduce students to a new invention from the nineteenth century: the locomotive. Then, they will research another invention from the nineteenth-century and the impact it had on the lives of the American people. Students will illustrate two advertisements: the first as a promotion of the positive impact of the invention and the second as a public service announcement warning about potentially harmful side effects.
George Inness American, 1825–1894 The Lackawanna Valley, c. 1856 oil on canvas, 86 x 127.5 cm (33 7/8 x 50 3/16 in.)National Gallery of Art, Gift of Mrs. Huttleston Rogers
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Warm-Up Question The Industrial Revolution meant that some goods once made by hand could now be made in larger quantities more quickly by machine. How did this affect the growing preference for train transportation? Background I like to see it lap the Miles— And lick the Valleys up— And stop to feed itself at Tanks— And then—prodigious step Around a Pile of Mountains— And supercilious peer In Shanties—by the sides of Roads— And then a Quarry pare To fit its sides And crawl between Complaining all the while In horrid—hooting stanza— Then chase itself down Hill— And neigh like Boanerges*— Then—prompter than a Star Stop—docile and omnipotent At its own stable door— *Biblical name meaning “sons of thunder” Emily Dickinson’s poem “I Like to See it Lap the Miles” (nineteenth century) The Industrial Revolution in the United States saw the rise of textile mills and mass production in other industries. National roads were built to make transportation easier, but railroads and steamboats made the movement of raw materials and manufactured goods even faster. By 1850, just twenty years after the engine Tom Thumb lost its race against a railroad car pulled by a horse, about nine thousand miles of railroad track crossed the nation. One of the early railroad lines was the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western. In the 1850s, the president of this new company commissioned the artist George Inness to paint The Lackawanna Valley to use for advertising purposes. While documenting the achievements of the railroad, Inness also created a convincing view of Scranton, Pennsylvania. The artist took relatively few liberties with his composition, but in compliance with the wishes of his patron, he included four trains and exaggerated the prominence of the railroad’s yet-to-be-completed roundhouse, a building for housing and repairing trains. Steam-powered trains were fueled by wood or coal (this one uses wood). They released smoke and soot in the air that often made rail travel dirty. It was not uncommon for porters to brush passengers off at the end of the line. In 1831, a passenger wrote this firsthand account of an early trip by rail: The [coaches] were coupled together with chains, leaving from two to three feet slack . . . and in stopping, came together with such force as to send [passengers] flying from their seats. . . . black smoke with sparks, coals, and cinders, came pouring back the whole length of the train. Each of the tossed passengers who had an umbrella raised it as a protection against the smoke and fire. They were found to be little protection, for I think in the first mile the last umbrella went over-board, all having their covers burnt off from the flames. quoted in Lorna C. Mason, William Jay Jacobs, and Robert P. Ludlum, History of The United States, vol. 1: Beginnings to 1877 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, Co., 1992), 364 Inness seems to have minimized the smoke in the landscape and painted it a clean billowing white—perfect for a promotional painting. When the poet Emily Dickinson (1830–1886) was young, trains were so new that people often referred to them as “iron horses.” Her poem, “I Like to See it Lap the Miles,” compares a train’s movements to those of a horse. Dickinson was born and lived in Amherst, Massachusetts. In her late twenties, she became increasingly withdrawn and thereafter seldom ventured outside her home. On one of her rare trips out, she stood in a neighbor’s woods to watch the first train in her town leave the station. Guided Practice
Activity There were many scientific, medical, and technological advances that improved the quality of life in nineteenth-century America. These patented inventions include:
Have students research an invention from this list or another that interests them. They should write an essay that describes the invention, when it happened, who invented it, how it was used, and how it made a difference in people’s lives. Extension Students will make a promotional advertisement for the invention they researched. Like Inness, they should focus on the positive aspects of this technology. Does it save time for the consumer/worker? How does it enhance the quality of life for the American people? Lastly, they will create a counterpart public service announcement showing the negative impact of this invention. For instance, does it add to pollution in the environment? Are their possible health risks or allergies associated with the invention?
VA:Cr1.2.7 Develop criteria to guide making a work of art or design to meet an identified goal. VA:Cr2.3.7 Apply visual organizational strategies to design and produce a work of art, design, or media that clearly communicates information or ideas. VA:Re7.2.7 Analyze multiple ways that images influence specific audiences. Page 6
Grade Level: 5–6 Students will learn the history of the Iowa tribe. Each student will then select a different tribe and complete research on the impact of the “Trail of Tears” on this tribe. Using Catlin’s portrait of White Cloud as their inspiration, they will create a self-portrait including symbols and emblems that represent who they are and what they care about.
George Catlin American, 1796–1872 The White Cloud, Head Chief of the Iowas, 1844/1845 oil on canvas, 71 x 58 cm (27 15/16 x 22 13/16 in.)National Gallery of Art, Paul Mellon Collection
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Warm-Up Question What feelings does this portrait evoke for you? Background This is a portrait of Mew-hu-she-kaw (also known as White Cloud and No Heart-of-Fear), one of several leaders of the Iowa tribe of American Indians in 1844/1845 when he posed for the American artist George Catlin. By the mid-nineteenth century the Iowas had been moved from their traditional territories in eastern Iowa to a small reservation in southeast Nebraska, forced there by the Indian Removal Act of 1830. Like a number of treaties before it, the Indian Removal Act sought to resolve the most difficult aspect of the clash between American Indians and European settlers—control of the land. The Indians believed that no one could “own” the land, but U.S. settlers held to the European concept of individual property rights. White settlers, rapidly increasing in number, wanted to acquire land west of the Mississippi where Indians inhabited vast areas. The Indian Removal Act stripped the Indians of claims to their traditional territories and then failed to protect them on the reservations to which they were assigned. Geographic displacement dealt a huge blow to the Indians’ way of life. Deprived of their hunting lands and related livelihoods, Indian peoples became increasingly impoverished. Few American Indians spoke or wrote English. Thus, understanding tribal orators (spokesmen) required interpreters, who were not always reliable in their translations. In 1836, after the Iowas had signed several treaties ceding all their claims to historically tribal lands, the Iowa orator Wach’emanyi is reported to have said: . . . This reduction of [the] Tribe has been mainly caused by their association with, and strict adherence to, their white fathers and brothers to keep their Treaties and the peace with all Nations. It is a notorious fact that they have stood like squaws, with their Bows unstrung, and scalping knives and tomahawks buried; with the peace pipe in their hands until they have been killed or destroyed. . . . Search at the mouth of the Upper Ioway River, they see their dirt lodges or Houses, the Mounds and remains of which are all plain to be seen . . . the existence of which no Nation can deny. . . . Speech attributed to Wach’emanyi, Orator of the Iowas (1836) Wach’emanyi’s speech was delivered during the decade when American artist George Catlin traveled among and documented the tribes of North America (1830–1836). Catlin had turned from a career in law to become an artist. He had a long-standing interest in American Indians, having heard stories of their exploits as a boy growing up in Pennsylvania. Catlin’s pictorial record of the Indians is vast: the National Gallery alone has over 350 of his paintings—including portraits, hunting and ceremonial scenes, and landscapes. Slideshow: George Catlin at the National Gallery of Art
George Catlin American, 1796–1872 Ball Players, 1844 color lithograph, 43.1 x 30.5 cm (17 x 12 in.) National Gallery of Art, Reba and Dave Williams Collection, Gift of Reba and Dave Williams
George Catlin American, 1796–1872 Assinneboine Warrior and His Family, 1861/1869
George Catlin American, 1796–1872 Buffalo Dance—Mandan, 1861 oil on card mounted on paperboard, 44.8 x 61.4 cm (17 5/8 x 24 3/16 in.) National Gallery of Art, Paul Mellon Collection
George Catlin American, 1796–1872 The Cheyenne Brothers Starting on Their Fall Hunt, 1861/1869 oil on card mounted on paperboard, 46 x 62.1 cm (18 1/8 x 24 7/16 in.) National Gallery of Art, Paul Mellon Collection
George Catlin American, 1796–1872 Facsimile of an Omaha Robe, 1861/1869 oil on card mounted on paperboard, 46.2 x 62.9 cm (18 3/16 x 24 3/4 in.) National Gallery of Art, Paul Mellon Collection
George Catlin American, 1796–1872 The Female Eagle—Shawano, 1830 oil on canvas, 72.2 x 59 cm (28 7/16 x 23 1/4 in.) National Gallery of Art, Paul Mellon Collection
George Catlin American, 1796–1872 Mandan Village—A Distant View, 1861/1869 oil on card mounted on paperboard, 47 x 63.5 cm (18 1/2 x 25 in.) National Gallery of Art, Paul Mellon Collection
George Catlin American, 1796–1872 Osage Indians, 1861/1869 oil on card mounted on paperboard, 46.2 x 62.2 cm (18 3/16 x 24 1/2 in.) National Gallery of Art, Paul Mellon Collection
In 1832, Catlin first encountered and painted a number of images of the Iowa tribe. At that time, the Iowa numbered about fourteen hundred and White Cloud’s father, also known as White Cloud, was among their chiefs. The senior White Cloud signed peace treaties with the U.S. government that led to the tribe’s eviction from its Iowa lands. By the time Catlin painted the young White Cloud’s portrait in 1844/1845, the Iowas had been reduced to approximately 470 people. White Cloud’s portrait was painted in London, where he had gone to seek financial support for his struggling tribe. Catlin had established an “Indian gallery” there to show his large collection of paintings and native American artifacts. White Cloud and thirteen other Iowas traveled to Europe in 1844 and spent a year performing native dances and demonstrating tribal customs for gallery visitors. Catlin’s portrait of White Cloud includes many details that signify Iowa identity. Tribal headgear was often, as here, made of deer’s tail (dyed vermilion red) and eagle’s quills. Beneath it, a fur turban (possibly otter) was also worn. The red paint and green lines on White Cloud’s face are consistent with the Iowas’ extensive use of face painting. White Cloud’s bear claw necklace, strands of beads and tubes carved from conch shells in multipierced ears, and large seashell strung at the throat, are all typical Iowa adornment. Catlin admired the Indian people. He painted White Cloud and other American Indians as figures exhibiting dignity and pride. Catlin expressed these qualities by making White Cloud’s figure large against the sky, and by including details of costume that symbolize the chief’s rank and achievement as an Iowa. Guided Practice
Activity In late 1838, the United States Army forced the last group of Cherokees off their lands. The Cherokee people traveled more than eight hundred miles on foot from North Carolina and Georgia through Tennessee, Kentucky, Illinois, Missouri, and Kansas. More than four thousand people died of cold, disease, and lack of food during the 116-day journey called by the Cherokees the “Trail Where They Cried.” Other Native Americans were marched at gunpoint as well. Have students research the effects of the Indian Removal Act of 1830 on the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Cree, Seminole, Mohawk, or another tribe. Where did the tribe live originally? What was life like before they were forced to leave their land? Where were they relocated? How did daily life change in their new homes? An online search of “Trail of Tears” yields many appropriate sites to begin research. Ask students to write their findings in one or two short paragraphs, illustrate them, and share them with the class. Class writings and drawings can be posted together on a bulletin board. Extension The American Indians adorned themselves with decoration to indicate their identity and status. People around the world do the same thing today. What do we use to distinguish ourselves as members of various groups or clubs? (Medals, badges, uniforms, t-shirts, color coding, rings, ribbons.) Students will complete a portrait of themselves including symbols and emblems that represent who they are and what they care about.
VA:Cn11.1.5 Identify how art is used to inform or change beliefs, values, or behaviors of an individual or society. VA:Cr2.3.5 Identify, describe, and visually document places and/or objects of personal significance. VA:Re7.2.5 Identify and analyze cultural associations suggested by visual imagery. Page 7
Grade Level: 5–6 Students will explore how westward expansion increased the number of jobs available in the nineteenth-century, including being a flatboatman through a painting by George Caleb Bingham. Working in pairs, students will write a letter to their partner from the standpoint of a person moving westward. Then they will construct a poem in the guise of Walt Whitman’s “I Hear America Singing” about a modern-day job. George Caleb Bingham American, 1811–1879 The Jolly Flatboatmen, 1846 oil on canvas, 38 1/8 x 48 1/2 in. (96.8 x 123.2 cm)Manoogian Collection
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Warm-Up Questions What do you think a flatboatman does? What objects in this painting make you think so? Background I hear America singing, the varied carols I hear, Those of mechanics, each one singing his as it should be blithe and strong, The carpenter singing his as he measures his plank or beam, The mason singing his as he makes ready for work, or leaves off work, The boatman singing what belongs to him in his boat, the deck-hand singing on the steamboat deck, The shoemaker singing as he sits on his bench, the hatter singing as he stands, The wood-cutter’s song, the ploughboy’s on his way in the morning, or at noon intermission or at sundown, The delicious singing of the mother, or of the young wife at work, or of the girl sewing or washing, Each singing what belongs to him or her and to none else, The day what belongs to the day—at night the party of young fellows, robust, friendly, Singing with open mouths their strong melodious songs. Walt Whitman’s poem, “I Hear America Singing,” from Leaves of Grass (1855) The Treaty of Paris in 1783 ended the American Revolution and set the Mississippi River as the new nation’s western border. With the signing of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, the United States acquired an additional eight hundred thousand square miles of land from the Mississippi River west to the Rocky Mountains and from New Orleans north to Canada. The way was open for settlers to move even farther west. In 1819, artist George Caleb Bingham’s family, like many others, moved west of the Mississippi. They settled in the wilderness town of Franklin in the Missouri Territory, which would become a state two years later. Farmers in the area shipped crops and animals in flatboats down the nearby Missouri River to the Mississippi, and on to the port of New Orleans. From there, goods were shipped to markets on the east coast of the United States.
George Caleb Bingham American, 1811–1879 Mississippi Boatman, 1850 oil on canvas, 61.3 x 43.7 cm (24 1/8 x 17 3/16 in.)National Gallery of Art, John Wilmerding Collection
Bingham was a self-trained painter who lived most of his life in Missouri. Working before America’s vastness was made accessible by roads and railways, Bingham found his subjects in the boatmen and trappers who populated his state’s great rivers, the Missouri and the Mississippi. Through these subjects, he captured a taste of life in the West. Bingham may well have witnessed a scene such as the one he recorded in The Jolly Flatboatmen as a child sitting on the banks of the Missouri River. Flatboats, used to haul freight in the sometimes-shallow inland waterways, were a dying breed when Bingham painted this one in 1846. By then, the Industrial Revolution was well underway, necessitating faster, bigger, and more powerful modes of transportation. Steamboats were seen with increased frequency on the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers after the 1820s. Trips that once took months by flatboat now took only a few days. By the 1840s, manpowered flatboats had all but disappeared in favor of technologically advanced, steam-powered boats. Pictured here are eight men taking a break from the labor of navigating their flatboat on the river. The boat is empty of freight; only a caged fowl, bedrolls, and a raccoon skin are visible. By most accounts, nineteenth-century Missouri boatmen were boisterous and vulgar. This group plays music, dances, and relaxes while their laundry dries. This genre painting, or scene from everyday life, celebrates the common men who lived their lives on the river.
Guided Practice
Activity Ask students to imagine they are part of the westward movement in the nineteenth century:
Extension Like Bingham, the poet Walt Whitman (1819–1892) took as his subjects laborers and people performing daily routines. He was intrigued by the humblest and most ordinary of moments. Whitman was born and worked in New York, then took a job in New Orleans, returning home by way of St. Louis, Chicago, the Great Lakes, Niagara Falls, Albany, and the Hudson. Like other nineteenth-century explorers, Walt Whitman traveled around America studying the world around him. In “I Hear America Singing”, he wrote about the jobs he saw performed everyday. What nineteenth-century occupations are mentioned in the poem? Have students use a dictionary or research online any jobs that are unfamiliar. Then students will write a poem about a modern-day job that Walt Whitman and George Caleb Bingham could have never dreamed existed.
VA:Cn11.1.5 Identify how art is used to inform or change beliefs, values, or behaviors of an individual or society. VA:Re7.1.6 Identify and interpret works of art or design that reveal how people live around the world and what they value. VA:Re7.2.5 Identify and analyze cultural associations suggested by visual imagery. VA:Re8.1.5 Interpret art by analyzing characteristics of form and structure, contextual information, subject matter, visual elements, and use of media to identify ideas and mood conveyed. |
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