How was the balance of power in Europe changed in the period 1848 1871?

On January 18, 1871, Prussian King Wilhelm I was declared emperor of the newly created German Empire at the Palace of Versailles in Paris. But why was a Prussian king made emperor of Germany? And why was he crowned in a French palace? What arrangement existed before the declaration of Germany as a unified nation-state?

Learn about the German Unification of 1871 in this article, including how a mixture of diplomacy and war led to the unification of Germany under Prussia's leadership and how this new nation state changed the balance of power in Europe, setting the stage for the First World War.

German Unification Summary

Before the German unification of 1871, the German states existed as a loose confederation that had limited economic and political cooperation. The two dominant German states were Prussia and Austria and there was competition between the two over who should be the leader of the German states.

By the mid-1800s, Prussia had become the more powerful of the two and its prime minister Otto von Bismarck played a clever game of using diplomacy and war to unite the German states under its leadership. A series of wars in the 1860s, culminating in the Prussian defeat of France in 1871 resulted in the German unification of 1871 under Prussian leadership.

That is a short German unification summary, but the process was complex, and you can learn more about it by looking at the German unification timeline and detailed account of the wars of German unification below.

German Unification Timeline

The German Unification of 1871 occurred after nearly a century of progress towards uniting the German states. See some of the major events and steps along the way to the German Unification of 1871 in the German Unification timeline below.

The Germanic States Before the German Unification of 1871

Germany existed as a loose confederation of kingdoms, small republics, and city-states before the German Unification of 1871. Let's trace how it unified under Prussian leadership.

Setting the Stage: The German Confederation

Germany was part of the Holy Roman Empire dating to Charlemagne's coronation in 800. However, it had a mostly decentralized structure since the 1200s, although the states still cooperated in naming a Holy Roman Emperor, usually the Habsburg ruler of Austria.

The Holy Roman Empire was officially dissolved after Napoleon conquered the area and declared the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806. The Kingdom of Prussia by this time had emerged as a major power of its own and played a role in the defeat of Napoleon along with Austria.

The status of the German states was a key question at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 after Napoleon was defeated. The German Confederation was created as a loose alliance of 39 states, including Prussia and Austria; however, rule remained highly decentralized, and the states remained independent of each other.

Greater or Lesser Germany?

The common experience of conquest by Napoleon had led to calls for German unification. The German states spoke the same language and nationalism was a growing force. However, a key question concerned whether a united Germany would include Austria or not.

Proponents of a "greater" Germany argued Austria should be part of Germany as Austrians were ethnically and linguistically related to Germans. However, Austria was part of the larger Austro-Hungarian Empire, which included many other nationalities in southeastern Europe.

Therefore, others called for a "lesser" Germany that excluded Austria. This was also the route of unification preferred by Prussia. Excluding Austria would assure their leadership role in a unified Germany.

In 1834, the Zollverein was created as a customs and trade union between the states of the German Confederation. It was largely led by Prussia, and Austria was excluded. It promoted free trade and economic integration between its members and was a step towards full German unification in 1871.

1848: Failed Attempt at Revolution and Unification

During the revolutions of 1848, liberal forces argued for reforms as well as German unification. The Frankfurt Assembly of 1848, a meeting of elected representatives from the German states, offered King Frederick William IV of Prussia the crown of a unified Germany.

However, the conservative Prussian leadership rejected the assembly's proposed democratic reforms. Meanwhile, Austria also worked to undermine attempts at unification under Prussian leadership seeing it as a threat to their own power. The dream of uniting Germany through the assembly had failed by 1849.

However, Prussia's leaders would work for a more top-down form of unification that preserved their conservative monarchial rule, eventually successfully achieving German unification 23 years later.

"Iron and Blood": Otto von Bismarck and German Unification

Historians see Prussia's Chancellor Otto von Bismarck as the main architect of German unification.

When Wilhelm I became King of Prussia in 1861, he sought to modernize Prussia as a major military and industrial power. He eventually appointed Otto von Bismarck as Chancellor, the head executive position in the Prussian government.

Bismarck gave a famous speech in 1862 on the topic of German unification. In this speech, he argued for a top-down approach to unification under the leadership of Prussian power. Bismarck believed in Realpolitik, or a realistic view of politics that rejected liberal idealism and accepted a cold, hard reality instead.

Germany is not looking to Prussia’s liberalism, but to its power...Prussia has to coalesce and concentrate its power for the opportune moment...it is not by speeches and majority resolutions that the great questions of the time are decided – that was the big mistake of 1848 and 1849 – but by iron and blood."1

Historians have debated whether Bismarck carried out a preconceived plan to unite Germany, or if he simply reacted to the situation as it developed. Regardless of which is true, over the next decade, he led Prussia through a series of wars and clever diplomacy that resulted in the unification of Germany in 1871 under Prussian leadership, his stated goal.

Wars of German Unification

Germany ultimately unified under Prussian leadership after a series of wars beginning in 1864.

Danish War of 1864

The first war of German unification occurred in 1864 over the Germanic provinces of Schleswig and Holstein, which Denmark claimed. Bismarck accused Danish authorities of mistreating German peoples in these provinces. He cleverly united with Austria to go to war with Denmark.

At the end of the war, Schleswig became part of Prussia and Holstein part of Austria. However, a second war over the spoils soon broke out.

Austro-Prussian War of 1866

In 1866, the former allies of Prussia and Austria went to war with each other. The Prussians won a stunning victory in a matter of weeks.

Besides seizing Holstein, they also absorbed several other German states that had allied with Austria, including Hanover and Nassau. The North German Confederation, under Prussian leadership, was created to further integrate most of the German states under Prussian leadership.

This war had also settled the question of which of the two potential leaders of Germany was stronger. Prussia was now ascendant and was clearly the strongest of the German states, having defeated its rival Austria on the battlefield. It became increasingly clear that German unification would occur under Prussian, not Austrian leadership.

Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71

However, it would take one final war before the German Unification of 1871 was finally complete.

Some of the western German states, such as Bavaria had so far resisted domination by Prussia. Bismarck hoped that by provoking war with France, he could form an alliance with these states and finally unite Germany as one larger nation-state.

In 1870, Bismarck manipulated newspaper articles and a telegram from Wilhelm to France's Napoleon III to insult the French.

An outraged French public called for war, granting Bismarck's wish and the Franco-Prussian War began when France declared war on Prussia. Bismarck had successfully created a situation where France was seen as the aggressor and the remaining independent German states were drawn in on the Prussian side to unite in war against them.

The well-organized Prussian army quickly defeated the French, capturing Napoleon III and his army in the process.

Declaration of the Unification of Germany in 1871

In January 1871, German forces had laid siege to Paris. In an insult to injury on top of the humiliating defeat of the French on the battlefield, Wilhelm had himself crowned Emperor of Germany in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles.

Bismarck's goal of uniting the German states into a single nation state under Prussian leadership was now complete. The new German Empire also claimed the territories of Alsace and Lorraine from France.

Consequences of the German Unification of 1871

The declaration of Germany was followed by internal attempts to further unify the new empire under Prussian leadership. It also had drastic consequences for the diplomatic situation in Europe.

Unifying the New Nation State

Bismarck now sought to unite the German people.

He did so by a process of negative integration, focusing on defining Germans as what they were not. His policies of Kulturekampf attempted to reduce the power of the Catholic Church and also persecuted German Jews.

While these policies eventually provoked backlash, they helped to reaffirm the dominant status of the conservative Prussian Junker landowning political class. German nationalism and national identity came to be defined by them. The Prussian military officer class was also widely celebrated, and militarism became an important part of German nationalism.

While Bismarck created a largely conservative and authoritarian political structure, he also introduced a number of welfare reforms, including unemployment relief, retirement pensions, and protections for sick and injured workers. These reforms helped create public support for the government.

End of the Balance of Power in Europe

The German unification of 1871 had profound consequences for the conditions in Europe.

Germany was now a large, unified state in central Europe, and it had shown on the battlefield that it was a force to be reckoned with. The balance of power created by the Vienna Conference of 1815 was now shattered.

The unified Germany would go on to quickly industrialize and modernize, ultimately challenging both France and Britain's status as the most powerful European powers. Bismarck now worked to create a system of alliances that isolated France, who he feared would want to take revenge for the humiliating defeat of 1871.

However, tensions would continue to grow, and mutual fear of the ascendant Germany would lead Britain and France to a closer relationship. Germany would come into conflict with both as it sought to further assert itself as a great power of equal status under Emperor Wilhelm II. Meanwhile, the earlier Prussian defeat of Austria accelerated the decline of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, leading to tensions in the Balkans.

These simmering tensions would boil over at the start of World War One.

Europe before and after the German Unification of 1871
Europe in 1815. Source: Alexander Altenhof, CC-BY-SA-4.0, Wikimedia Commons	Europe in 1815. Source: Alexander Altenhof, CC-BY-SA-4.0, Wikimedia Commons

Exam Tip

Exam questions often ask about the concepts of change and continuity. Look at the maps above and think about how you could construct a historical argument that the unification of Germany altered the balance of power in Europe after 1871.

German Unification - Key Takeaways

• The German Unification of 1871 was the culmination of a complex series of processes that saw the German states become increasingly integrated and aligned under Prussian leadership over the course of the 19th century.
• Economic and diplomatic integration in the German Confederation and the Zollverein laid the foundations for German Unification in 1871.
• Questions emerged whether Prussia or Austria was the proper leader of a unified Germany.
• Otto von Bismarck played a key role in uniting the German states under Prussian leadership through diplomacy and war using his philosophy of Realpolitik.
• The Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71 resulted in the declaration of the German Empire with the Prussian King Wilhelm I proclaimed emperor of the new nation state of Germany, completing German unification.

Page 2

Martin Luther, a Catholic monk, wrote a document referred to as 95 Theses, that changed Western Christian religion forever. What made a devout monk openly criticize the Church? What was written in the 95 Theses that made it so important? Let's look at the 95 Theses and Martin Luther!

95 Theses Definition

On October 31, 1417, in Wittenberg, Germany Martin Luther hung his 95 Theses on the door outside of his church. The first two theses were the issues that Luther had with the Catholic Church and the rest were the arguments that he could have with people about these issues.

Martin Luther and the 95 Theses

Martin Luther intended to be a lawyer until he was stuck in a deadly storm. Luther swore an oath to God that if he lived then he would become a monk. True to his word, Luther became a monk and then completed his doctoral program. Eventually, he had his very own church in Wittenberg, Germany.

95 Theses Summary

Over in Rome in 1515, Pope Leo X wanted to renovate St. Peter's Basilica. The Pope permitted the sale of indulgences to raise money for this construction project. Indulgences challenged Luther's view of Christianity. If a priest sold an indulgence, then the person who received it paid for forgiveness. The forgiveness of their sins did not come from God but the priest.

Luther believed that forgiveness and salvation could only come from God. A person could also buy indulgences on behalf of other people. One could even buy an indulgence for a dead person to shorten their stay in Purgatory. This practice was illegal in Germany but one day Luther's congregation told him that they would no longer need confessionals because their sins had been forgiven through indulgences.

95 Theses Date

On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther went outside of his church and hammered his 95 Theses to the Church wall. This sounds dramatic but historians think it probably wasn't. Luther's theses took off and were soon translated to different languages. It even made its way to Pope Leo X!

The Catholic Church

The Catholic Church was the only Christian church in existence at this time, there were no Baptists, Presbyterians, or Protestants. The Church (meaning the Catholic Church) also provided the only welfare programs. They fed the hungry, gave shelter to the poor, and provided medical care. The only education available was through the Catholic Church. Faith was not the only reason people attended church. At church, they could show off their status and socialize.

The pope was extremely powerful. The Catholic Church owned one-third of the land in Europe. The pope also had power over kings. This is because kings were thought to be appointed by God and the pope was a direct link to God. The pope would advise kings and could heavily influence wars and other political struggles.

When going forward, remember how important and powerful the Catholic Church was. This will offer context to the Protestant Reformation.

95 Theses Summary

The first two theses are about indulgences and why they are immoral. The first thesis refers to God as the only being who can grant forgiveness from sins. Luther was very dedicated to the belief that God could grant forgiveness to anyone who prayed for it.

The second thesis was directly calling out the Catholic Church. Luther reminds the reader that the church does not have the authority to forgive sins so when they sell indulgences, they are selling something they do not have. If God is the only one who can forgive sins and the indulgences weren't bought from God, then they are fake.

1. When our Lord and Master Jesus Christ said, ``Repent'' (Mt 4:17), he willed the entire life of believers to be one of repentance.
2. This word cannot be understood as referring to the sacrament of penance, that is, confession and satisfaction, as administered by the clergy.

The rest of the theses are providing evidence of Luther's first two claims. These are written as arguing points. Luther opens the door that if anyone found fought in any of his points then they could write him and they would debate. The point of the theses was not to destroy the Catholic church but to reform it. The 95 Theses were translated from Latin to German and were read by people all over the country!

Luther wrote the theses in a conversational tone. While it was written in Latin, this would not be for the clergy alone. This would also be for the Catholics who, in Luther's eyes, wasted their money on indulgences. Luther proposed a reform of the Catholic Church. He was not trying to strike out and create a new form of Christianity.

Martin Luther no longer believed that priests could forgive people of their sins on behalf of God. He had a completely radical idea that people could confess in prayer on their own and God would forgive them. Luther also believed that the bible should be translated into German so that everyone could read it. At this point, it was written in Latin and only the clergy could read it.

The Gutenberg Printing Press and the Protestant Reformation

Martin Luther was not the first educated person to go up against the Catholic Church but he is the first to start a reformation. What made him different? In 1440, Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press. This made information spread quicker than it had previously. While historians are still researching the effect of the printing press on the Protestant Reformation, most agree that the Reformation would not have happened without it.

95 Theses Effect on Europe

Luther was excommunicated from the church while the 95 Theses sparked the Protestant Reformation. This was also a political reform. It eventually took away the majority of the pope's power removing his role as a political leader and leaving him as a spiritual leader. The nobility began to break from the Catholic Church because they could then dissolve the church's landholdings and keep the profits. Nobles who were monks could leave the Catholics and get married then produce heirs.

Through the Protestant Reformation people were able to get a German translation of the bible. Anyone who was literate could read the bible for themselves. No longer did they have to rely so heavily on the priests. This created different denominations of Christianity that did not follow the same rules as the Catholic Church or each other's. This also sparked the German Peasant Revolt which was the largest peasant revolt at that time.

95 Theses - Key takeaways

• The 95 Theses was originally a response to the sale of Indulgences
• The Catholic Church was a social, political, and spiritual world power
• The 95 Theses sparked the Protestant Reformation which eventually drastically diminished the power of the Catholic Church

The 95 Theses was a document posted by Martin Luther. It was written so the Catholic Church would reform.

The 95 Theses was posted on October 31st, 1517 in Wittenberg, Germany.

Martin Luther wrote the 95 Theses so that the Catholic Church would reform and stop selling indulgences. 

Martin Luther wrote the 95 Theses.

The first two theses were against the sale of indulgences the rest of the theses backed up that claim. 

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When were the 95 Theses written? 

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Where was the 95 Theses posted?

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When someone is removed from the Catholic church because of their actions it is called ________.

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What were tokens that could be purchased by anyone that meant the buyer's sins had been forgiven?

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Why did Pope Leo X allow Catholics to start back selling indulgences?

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To Fund the restoration of St. Peter's Basilica

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What was the first thesis about?

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Only God can forgive people of their sins

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What was the second thesis about?

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The Catholic Church did not have the authority to forgive people of their sins

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What were the third through ninety-nine theses about?

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They were points that backed up the first two theses. 

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What invention helped the spread of the Protestant Reformation?

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The Gutenberg Printing Press

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What reformation was sparked by the Ninety-Five Theses?

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True/False

Nobles broke from the Catholic Church then dissolved the Church's holdings so that they could keep the revenue.

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True/False 

Before the Protestant Reformation, there were plenty of denominations of Christians.

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Which book did Luther translate into German that greatly influenced the Protestant Reformation?

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Who did Martin Luther think that people needed to forgive their sins?