Cara menggunakan python built-in functions list

The Python interpreter has a number of functions and types built into it that are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.

Built-in Functions

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

L

M

N

O

P

R

S

T

V

Z

_

Return the absolute value of a number. The argument may be an integer, a floating point number, or an object implementing

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

Return an for an . Equivalent to calling

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

Note: Unlike , has no 2-argument variant.

New in version 3.10.

Return

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def all(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if not element:
            return False
    return True

When awaited, return the next item from the given , or default if given and the iterator is exhausted.

This is the async variant of the builtin, and behaves similarly.

This calls the method of async_iterator, returning an . Awaiting this returns the next value of the iterator. If default is given, it is returned if the iterator is exhausted, otherwise is raised.

New in version 3.10.

Return

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

As , return a string containing a printable representation of an object, but escape the non-ASCII characters in the string returned by using

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

Convert an integer number to a binary string prefixed with “0b”. The result is a valid Python expression. If x is not a Python object, it has to define an

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

If the prefix “0b” is desired or not, you can use either of the following ways.

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

See also for more information.

Return a Boolean value, i.e. one of

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

Changed in version 3.7: x is now a positional-only parameter.

This function drops you into the debugger at the call site. Specifically, it calls , passing

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

Raises an

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

New in version 3.7.

Return a new array of bytes. The class is a mutable sequence of integers in the range 0 <= x < 256. It has most of the usual methods of mutable sequences, described in , as well as most methods that the type has, see .

The optional source parameter can be used to initialize the array in a few different ways:

• If it is a string, you must also give the encoding (and optionally, errors) parameters; then converts the string to bytes using .

• If it is an integer, the array will have that size and will be initialized with null bytes.

• If it is an object conforming to the , a read-only buffer of the object will be used to initialize the bytes array.

• If it is an iterable, it must be an iterable of integers in the range

  def any(iterable):
      for element in iterable:
          if element:
              return True
      return False
  

  48, which are used as the initial contents of the array.

Without an argument, an array of size 0 is created.

See also and .

Return a new “bytes” object which is an immutable sequence of integers in the range

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

Accordingly, constructor arguments are interpreted as for .

Bytes objects can also be created with literals, see .

See also , , and .

Return if the object argument appears callable, if not. If this returns

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

New in version 3.2: This function was first removed in Python 3.0 and then brought back in Python 3.2.

Return the string representing a character whose Unicode code point is the integer i. For example,

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

The valid range for the argument is from 0 through 1,114,111 (0x10FFFF in base 16). will be raised if i is outside that range.

Transform a method into a class method.

A class method receives the class as an implicit first argument, just like an instance method receives the instance. To declare a class method, use this idiom:

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

The

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

A class method can be called either on the class (such as

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

Class methods are different than C++ or Java static methods. If you want those, see in this section. For more information on class methods, see .

Changed in version 3.9: Class methods can now wrap other such as .

Changed in version 3.10: Class methods now inherit the method attributes (

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

Changed in version 3.11: Class methods can no longer wrap other such as .

Compile the source into a code or AST object. Code objects can be executed by or . source can either be a normal string, a byte string, or an AST object. Refer to the module documentation for information on how to work with AST objects.

The filename argument should give the file from which the code was read; pass some recognizable value if it wasn’t read from a file (

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

The mode argument specifies what kind of code must be compiled; it can be

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

The optional arguments flags and dont_inherit control which should be activated and which should be allowed. If neither is present (or both are zero) the code is compiled with the same flags that affect the code that is calling . If the flags argument is given and dont_inherit is not (or is zero) then the compiler options and the future statements specified by the flags argument are used in addition to those that would be used anyway. If dont_inherit is a non-zero integer then the flags argument is it – the flags (future features and compiler options) in the surrounding code are ignored.

Compiler options and future statements are specified by bits which can be bitwise ORed together to specify multiple options. The bitfield required to specify a given future feature can be found as the

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

The argument optimize specifies the optimization level of the compiler; the default value of

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

This function raises if the compiled source is invalid, and if the source contains null bytes.

If you want to parse Python code into its AST representation, see .

Raises an

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

Note

When compiling a string with multi-line code in

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

Warning

It is possible to crash the Python interpreter with a sufficiently large/complex string when compiling to an AST object due to stack depth limitations in Python’s AST compiler.

Changed in version 3.2: Allowed use of Windows and Mac newlines. Also, input in

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

Changed in version 3.5: Previously, was raised when null bytes were encountered in source.

New in version 3.8:

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

Return a complex number with the value real + imag*1j or convert a string or number to a complex number. If the first parameter is a string, it will be interpreted as a complex number and the function must be called without a second parameter. The second parameter can never be a string. Each argument may be any numeric type (including complex). If imag is omitted, it defaults to zero and the constructor serves as a numeric conversion like and . If both arguments are omitted, returns

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

For a general Python object

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

Note

When converting from a string, the string must not contain whitespace around the central

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

The complex type is described in .

Changed in version 3.6: Grouping digits with underscores as in code literals is allowed.

Changed in version 3.8: Falls back to

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

This is a relative of . The arguments are an object and a string. The string must be the name of one of the object’s attributes. The function deletes the named attribute, provided the object allows it. For example,

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

Create a new dictionary. The object is the dictionary class. See and for documentation about this class.

For other containers see the built-in , , and classes, as well as the module.

Without arguments, return the list of names in the current local scope. With an argument, attempt to return a list of valid attributes for that object.

If the object has a method named

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

If the object does not provide

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

The default mechanism behaves differently with different types of objects, as it attempts to produce the most relevant, rather than complete, information:

• If the object is a module object, the list contains the names of the module’s attributes.

• If the object is a type or class object, the list contains the names of its attributes, and recursively of the attributes of its bases.

• Otherwise, the list contains the object’s attributes’ names, the names of its class’s attributes, and recursively of the attributes of its class’s base classes.

The resulting list is sorted alphabetically. For example:

>>> import struct
>>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace  
['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
>>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module 
['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
 '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
 'unpack', 'unpack_from']
>>> class Shape:
...     def __dir__(self):
...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
>>> s = Shape()
>>> dir(s)
['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

Note

Because is supplied primarily as a convenience for use at an interactive prompt, it tries to supply an interesting set of names more than it tries to supply a rigorously or consistently defined set of names, and its detailed behavior may change across releases. For example, metaclass attributes are not in the result list when the argument is a class.

Take two (non-complex) numbers as arguments and return a pair of numbers consisting of their quotient and remainder when using integer division. With mixed operand types, the rules for binary arithmetic operators apply. For integers, the result is the same as

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

Return an enumerate object. iterable must be a sequence, an , or some other object which supports iteration. The method of the iterator returned by returns a tuple containing a count (from start which defaults to 0) and the values obtained from iterating over iterable.

>>> seasons = ['Spring', 'Summer', 'Fall', 'Winter']
>>> list(enumerate(seasons))
[(0, 'Spring'), (1, 'Summer'), (2, 'Fall'), (3, 'Winter')]
>>> list(enumerate(seasons, start=1))
[(1, 'Spring'), (2, 'Summer'), (3, 'Fall'), (4, 'Winter')]

Equivalent to:

def enumerate(iterable, start=0):
    n = start
    for elem in iterable:
        yield n, elem
        n += 1

The arguments are a string and optional globals and locals. If provided, globals must be a dictionary. If provided, locals can be any mapping object.

The expression argument is parsed and evaluated as a Python expression (technically speaking, a condition list) using the globals and locals dictionaries as global and local namespace. If the globals dictionary is present and does not contain a value for the key

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

The return value is the result of the evaluated expression. Syntax errors are reported as exceptions. Example:

>>> x = 1
>>> eval('x+1')
2

This function can also be used to execute arbitrary code objects (such as those created by ). In this case, pass a code object instead of a string. If the code object has been compiled with

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

Hints: dynamic execution of statements is supported by the function. The and functions return the current global and local dictionary, respectively, which may be useful to pass around for use by or .

If the given source is a string, then leading and trailing spaces and tabs are stripped.

See for a function that can safely evaluate strings with expressions containing only literals.

Raises an

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

This function supports dynamic execution of Python code. object must be either a string or a code object. If it is a string, the string is parsed as a suite of Python statements which is then executed (unless a syntax error occurs). If it is a code object, it is simply executed. In all cases, the code that’s executed is expected to be valid as file input (see the section in the Reference Manual). Be aware that the , , and statements may not be used outside of function definitions even within the context of code passed to the function. The return value is

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

In all cases, if the optional parts are omitted, the code is executed in the current scope. If only globals is provided, it must be a dictionary (and not a subclass of dictionary), which will be used for both the global and the local variables. If globals and locals are given, they are used for the global and local variables, respectively. If provided, locals can be any mapping object. Remember that at the module level, globals and locals are the same dictionary. If exec gets two separate objects as globals and locals, the code will be executed as if it were embedded in a class definition.

If the globals dictionary does not contain a value for the key

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

The closure argument specifies a closure–a tuple of cellvars. It’s only valid when the object is a code object containing free variables. The length of the tuple must exactly match the number of free variables referenced by the code object.

Raises an

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

Note

The built-in functions and return the current global and local dictionary, respectively, which may be useful to pass around for use as the second and third argument to .

Note

The default locals act as described for function below: modifications to the default locals dictionary should not be attempted. Pass an explicit locals dictionary if you need to see effects of the code on locals after function returns.

Changed in version 3.11: Added the closure parameter.

Construct an iterator from those elements of iterable for which function returns true. iterable may be either a sequence, a container which supports iteration, or an iterator. If function is

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

Note that

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

See for the complementary function that returns elements of iterable for which function returns false.

Return a floating point number constructed from a number or string x.

If the argument is a string, it should contain a decimal number, optionally preceded by a sign, and optionally embedded in whitespace. The optional sign may be

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

sign        ::=  "+" | "-"
infinity    ::=  "Infinity" | "inf"
nan         ::=  "nan"
digitpart   ::=  digit (["_"] digit)*
number      ::=  [digitpart] "." digitpart | digitpart ["."]
exponent    ::=  ("e" | "E") ["+" | "-"] digitpart
floatnumber ::=  number [exponent]
floatvalue  ::=  [sign] (floatnumber | infinity | nan)

Here

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

Otherwise, if the argument is an integer or a floating point number, a floating point number with the same value (within Python’s floating point precision) is returned. If the argument is outside the range of a Python float, an will be raised.

For a general Python object

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

If no argument is given,

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

Examples:

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

The float type is described in .

Changed in version 3.6: Grouping digits with underscores as in code literals is allowed.

Changed in version 3.7: x is now a positional-only parameter.

Changed in version 3.8: Falls back to

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

Convert a value to a “formatted” representation, as controlled by format_spec. The interpretation of format_spec will depend on the type of the value argument; however, there is a standard formatting syntax that is used by most built-in types: .

The default format_spec is an empty string which usually gives the same effect as calling .

A call to

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

Changed in version 3.4:

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

Return a new object, optionally with elements taken from iterable.

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

For other containers see the built-in , , , and classes, as well as the module.

Return the value of the named attribute of object. name must be a string. If the string is the name of one of the object’s attributes, the result is the value of that attribute. For example,

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

Note

Since happens at compilation time, one must manually mangle a private attribute’s (attributes with two leading underscores) name in order to retrieve it with .

Return the dictionary implementing the current module namespace. For code within functions, this is set when the function is defined and remains the same regardless of where the function is called.

The arguments are an object and a string. The result is

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

Return the hash value of the object (if it has one). Hash values are integers. They are used to quickly compare dictionary keys during a dictionary lookup. Numeric values that compare equal have the same hash value (even if they are of different types, as is the case for 1 and 1.0).

Note

For objects with custom

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

Invoke the built-in help system. (This function is intended for interactive use.) If no argument is given, the interactive help system starts on the interpreter console. If the argument is a string, then the string is looked up as the name of a module, function, class, method, keyword, or documentation topic, and a help page is printed on the console. If the argument is any other kind of object, a help page on the object is generated.

Note that if a slash(/) appears in the parameter list of a function when invoking , it means that the parameters prior to the slash are positional-only. For more info, see .

This function is added to the built-in namespace by the module.

Changed in version 3.4: Changes to and mean that the reported signatures for callables are now more comprehensive and consistent.

Convert an integer number to a lowercase hexadecimal string prefixed with “0x”. If x is not a Python object, it has to define an

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

If you want to convert an integer number to an uppercase or lower hexadecimal string with prefix or not, you can use either of the following ways:

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

See also for more information.

See also for converting a hexadecimal string to an integer using a base of 16.

Note

To obtain a hexadecimal string representation for a float, use the method.

Return the “identity” of an object. This is an integer which is guaranteed to be unique and constant for this object during its lifetime. Two objects with non-overlapping lifetimes may have the same value.

CPython implementation detail: This is the address of the object in memory.

Raises an

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

If the prompt argument is present, it is written to standard output without a trailing newline. The function then reads a line from input, converts it to a string (stripping a trailing newline), and returns that. When EOF is read, is raised. Example:

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

If the module was loaded, then will use it to provide elaborate line editing and history features.

Raises an

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

Raises an

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

Return an integer object constructed from a number or string x, or return

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

If x is not a number or if base is given, then x must be a string, , or instance representing an integer in radix base. Optionally, the string can be preceded by

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

A base-n integer string contains digits, each representing a value from 0 to n-1. The values 0–9 can be represented by any Unicode decimal digit. The values 10–35 can be represented by

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

The integer type is described in .

Changed in version 3.4: If base is not an instance of and the base object has a method, that method is called to obtain an integer for the base. Previous versions used instead of .

Changed in version 3.6: Grouping digits with underscores as in code literals is allowed.

Changed in version 3.7: x is now a positional-only parameter.

Changed in version 3.8: Falls back to

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

Changed in version 3.11: The delegation to

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

Changed in version 3.11: string inputs and string representations can be limited to help avoid denial of service attacks. A is raised when the limit is exceeded while converting a string x to an or when converting an into a string would exceed the limit. See the documentation.

Return

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

Changed in version 3.10: classinfo can be a .

Return

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

Changed in version 3.10: classinfo can be a .

Return an object. The first argument is interpreted very differently depending on the presence of the second argument. Without a second argument, object must be a collection object which supports the protocol (the

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

See also .

One useful application of the second form of is to build a block-reader. For example, reading fixed-width blocks from a binary database file until the end of file is reached:

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

Return the length (the number of items) of an object. The argument may be a sequence (such as a string, bytes, tuple, list, or range) or a collection (such as a dictionary, set, or frozen set).

CPython implementation detail:

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

Rather than being a function, is actually a mutable sequence type, as documented in and .

Update and return a dictionary representing the current local symbol table. Free variables are returned by when it is called in function blocks, but not in class blocks. Note that at the module level, and are the same dictionary.

Note

The contents of this dictionary should not be modified; changes may not affect the values of local and free variables used by the interpreter.

Return an iterator that applies function to every item of iterable, yielding the results. If additional iterables arguments are passed, function must take that many arguments and is applied to the items from all iterables in parallel. With multiple iterables, the iterator stops when the shortest iterable is exhausted. For cases where the function inputs are already arranged into argument tuples, see .

Return the largest item in an iterable or the largest of two or more arguments.

If one positional argument is provided, it should be an . The largest item in the iterable is returned. If two or more positional arguments are provided, the largest of the positional arguments is returned.

There are two optional keyword-only arguments. The key argument specifies a one-argument ordering function like that used for . The default argument specifies an object to return if the provided iterable is empty. If the iterable is empty and default is not provided, a is raised.

If multiple items are maximal, the function returns the first one encountered. This is consistent with other sort-stability preserving tools such as

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

New in version 3.4: The default keyword-only argument.

Changed in version 3.8: The key can be

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

Return a “memory view” object created from the given argument. See for more information.

Return the smallest item in an iterable or the smallest of two or more arguments.

If one positional argument is provided, it should be an . The smallest item in the iterable is returned. If two or more positional arguments are provided, the smallest of the positional arguments is returned.

There are two optional keyword-only arguments. The key argument specifies a one-argument ordering function like that used for . The default argument specifies an object to return if the provided iterable is empty. If the iterable is empty and default is not provided, a is raised.

If multiple items are minimal, the function returns the first one encountered. This is consistent with other sort-stability preserving tools such as

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

New in version 3.4: The default keyword-only argument.

Changed in version 3.8: The key can be

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

Retrieve the next item from the by calling its method. If default is given, it is returned if the iterator is exhausted, otherwise is raised.

Return a new featureless object. is a base for all classes. It has methods that are common to all instances of Python classes. This function does not accept any arguments.

Note

does not have a , so you can’t assign arbitrary attributes to an instance of the class.

Convert an integer number to an octal string prefixed with “0o”. The result is a valid Python expression. If x is not a Python object, it has to define an

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

If you want to convert an integer number to an octal string either with the prefix “0o” or not, you can use either of the following ways.

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

See also for more information.

Open file and return a corresponding . If the file cannot be opened, an is raised. See for more examples of how to use this function.

file is a giving the pathname (absolute or relative to the current working directory) of the file to be opened or an integer file descriptor of the file to be wrapped. (If a file descriptor is given, it is closed when the returned I/O object is closed unless closefd is set to

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

mode is an optional string that specifies the mode in which the file is opened. It defaults to

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

Character

Meaning

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

open for reading (default)

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

open for writing, truncating the file first

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

open for exclusive creation, failing if the file already exists

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

open for writing, appending to the end of file if it exists

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

binary mode

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

text mode (default)

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

open for updating (reading and writing)

The default mode is

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

As mentioned in the , Python distinguishes between binary and text I/O. Files opened in binary mode (including

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

Note

Python doesn’t depend on the underlying operating system’s notion of text files; all the processing is done by Python itself, and is therefore platform-independent.

buffering is an optional integer used to set the buffering policy. Pass 0 to switch buffering off (only allowed in binary mode), 1 to select line buffering (only usable in text mode), and an integer > 1 to indicate the size in bytes of a fixed-size chunk buffer. Note that specifying a buffer size this way applies for binary buffered I/O, but

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

• Binary files are buffered in fixed-size chunks; the size of the buffer is chosen using a heuristic trying to determine the underlying device’s “block size” and falling back on . On many systems, the buffer will typically be 4096 or 8192 bytes long.

• “Interactive” text files (files for which returns

  def any(iterable):
      for element in iterable:
          if element:
              return True
      return False
  

  09) use line buffering. Other text files use the policy described above for binary files.

encoding is the name of the encoding used to decode or encode the file. This should only be used in text mode. The default encoding is platform dependent (whatever returns), but any supported by Python can be used. See the module for the list of supported encodings.

errors is an optional string that specifies how encoding and decoding errors are to be handled—this cannot be used in binary mode. A variety of standard error handlers are available (listed under ), though any error handling name that has been registered with is also valid. The standard names include:

• class C:
      @classmethod
      def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...
  

  70 to raise a exception if there is an encoding error. The default value of

  def any(iterable):
      for element in iterable:
          if element:
              return True
      return False
  

  83 has the same effect.

• class C:
      @classmethod
      def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...
  

  73 ignores errors. Note that ignoring encoding errors can lead to data loss.

• class C:
      @classmethod
      def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...
  

  74 causes a replacement marker (such as

  class C:
      @classmethod
      def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...
  

  75) to be inserted where there is malformed data.

• class C:
      @classmethod
      def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...
  

  76 will represent any incorrect bytes as low surrogate code units ranging from U+DC80 to U+DCFF. These surrogate code units will then be turned back into the same bytes when the

  class C:
      @classmethod
      def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...
  

  77 error handler is used when writing data. This is useful for processing files in an unknown encoding.

• class C:
      @classmethod
      def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...
  

  78 is only supported when writing to a file. Characters not supported by the encoding are replaced with the appropriate XML character reference

  class C:
      @classmethod
      def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...
  

  79.

• class C:
      @classmethod
      def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...
  

  80 replaces malformed data by Python’s backslashed escape sequences.

• class C:
      @classmethod
      def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...
  

  81 (also only supported when writing) replaces unsupported characters with

  class C:
      @classmethod
      def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...
  

  82 escape sequences.

newline determines how to parse newline characters from the stream. It can be

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

• When reading input from the stream, if newline is

  def any(iterable):
      for element in iterable:
          if element:
              return True
      return False
  

  83, universal newlines mode is enabled. Lines in the input can end in

  class C:
      @classmethod
      def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...
  

  85,

  class C:
      @classmethod
      def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...
  

  86, or

  class C:
      @classmethod
      def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...
  

  87, and these are translated into

  class C:
      @classmethod
      def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...
  

  85 before being returned to the caller. If it is

  class C:
      @classmethod
      def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...
  

  84, universal newlines mode is enabled, but line endings are returned to the caller untranslated. If it has any of the other legal values, input lines are only terminated by the given string, and the line ending is returned to the caller untranslated.

• When writing output to the stream, if newline is

  def any(iterable):
      for element in iterable:
          if element:
              return True
      return False
  

  83, any

  class C:
      @classmethod
      def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...
  

  85 characters written are translated to the system default line separator, . If newline is

  class C:
      @classmethod
      def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...
  

  84 or

  class C:
      @classmethod
      def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...
  

  85, no translation takes place. If newline is any of the other legal values, any

  class C:
      @classmethod
      def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...
  

  85 characters written are translated to the given string.

If closefd is

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

A custom opener can be used by passing a callable as opener. The underlying file descriptor for the file object is then obtained by calling opener with (file, flags). opener must return an open file descriptor (passing as opener results in functionality similar to passing

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

The newly created file is .

The following example uses the parameter of the function to open a file relative to a given directory:

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

The type of returned by the function depends on the mode. When is used to open a file in a text mode (

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

>>> import struct
>>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace  
['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
>>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module 
['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
 '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
 'unpack', 'unpack_from']
>>> class Shape:
...     def __dir__(self):
...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
>>> s = Shape()
>>> dir(s)
['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

See also the file handling modules, such as , (where is declared), , , , and .

Raises an

>>> import struct
>>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace  
['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
>>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module 
['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
 '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
 'unpack', 'unpack_from']
>>> class Shape:
...     def __dir__(self):
...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
>>> s = Shape()
>>> dir(s)
['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

>>> import struct
>>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace  
['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
>>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module 
['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
 '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
 'unpack', 'unpack_from']
>>> class Shape:
...     def __dir__(self):
...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
>>> s = Shape()
>>> dir(s)
['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

>>> import struct
>>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace  
['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
>>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module 
['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
 '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
 'unpack', 'unpack_from']
>>> class Shape:
...     def __dir__(self):
...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
>>> s = Shape()
>>> dir(s)
['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

>>> import struct
>>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace  
['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
>>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module 
['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
 '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
 'unpack', 'unpack_from']
>>> class Shape:
...     def __dir__(self):
...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
>>> s = Shape()
>>> dir(s)
['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

The

>>> import struct
>>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace  
['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
>>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module 
['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
 '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
 'unpack', 'unpack_from']
>>> class Shape:
...     def __dir__(self):
...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
>>> s = Shape()
>>> dir(s)
['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

>>> import struct
>>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace  
['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
>>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module 
['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
 '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
 'unpack', 'unpack_from']
>>> class Shape:
...     def __dir__(self):
...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
>>> s = Shape()
>>> dir(s)
['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

Changed in version 3.3:

• The opener parameter was added.

• The

  class C:
      @classmethod
      def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...
  

  39 mode was added.

• used to be raised, it is now an alias of .

• is now raised if the file opened in exclusive creation mode (

  class C:
      @classmethod
      def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...
  

  39) already exists.

Changed in version 3.4:

• The file is now non-inheritable.

Changed in version 3.5:

• If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise an exception, the function now retries the system call instead of raising an exception (see PEP 475 for the rationale).

• The

  class C:
      @classmethod
      def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...
  

  81 error handler was added.

Changed in version 3.6:

• Support added to accept objects implementing .

• On Windows, opening a console buffer may return a subclass of other than .

Changed in version 3.11: The

>>> import struct
>>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace  
['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
>>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module 
['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
 '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
 'unpack', 'unpack_from']
>>> class Shape:
...     def __dir__(self):
...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
>>> s = Shape()
>>> dir(s)
['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

Given a string representing one Unicode character, return an integer representing the Unicode code point of that character. For example,

>>> import struct
>>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace  
['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
>>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module 
['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
 '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
 'unpack', 'unpack_from']
>>> class Shape:
...     def __dir__(self):
...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
>>> s = Shape()
>>> dir(s)
['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

>>> import struct
>>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace  
['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
>>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module 
['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
 '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
 'unpack', 'unpack_from']
>>> class Shape:
...     def __dir__(self):
...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
>>> s = Shape()
>>> dir(s)
['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

>>> import struct
>>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace  
['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
>>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module 
['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
 '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
 'unpack', 'unpack_from']
>>> class Shape:
...     def __dir__(self):
...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
>>> s = Shape()
>>> dir(s)
['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

>>> import struct
>>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace  
['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
>>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module 
['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
 '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
 'unpack', 'unpack_from']
>>> class Shape:
...     def __dir__(self):
...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
>>> s = Shape()
>>> dir(s)
['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

Return base to the power exp; if mod is present, return base to the power exp, modulo mod (computed more efficiently than

>>> import struct
>>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace  
['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
>>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module 
['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
 '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
 'unpack', 'unpack_from']
>>> class Shape:
...     def __dir__(self):
...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
>>> s = Shape()
>>> dir(s)
['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

>>> import struct
>>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace  
['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
>>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module 
['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
 '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
 'unpack', 'unpack_from']
>>> class Shape:
...     def __dir__(self):
...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
>>> s = Shape()
>>> dir(s)
['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

>>> import struct
>>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace  
['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
>>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module 
['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
 '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
 'unpack', 'unpack_from']
>>> class Shape:
...     def __dir__(self):
...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
>>> s = Shape()
>>> dir(s)
['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

The arguments must have numeric types. With mixed operand types, the coercion rules for binary arithmetic operators apply. For operands, the result has the same type as the operands (after coercion) unless the second argument is negative; in that case, all arguments are converted to float and a float result is delivered. For example,

>>> import struct
>>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace  
['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
>>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module 
['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
 '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
 'unpack', 'unpack_from']
>>> class Shape:
...     def __dir__(self):
...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
>>> s = Shape()
>>> dir(s)
['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

>>> import struct
>>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace  
['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
>>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module 
['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
 '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
 'unpack', 'unpack_from']
>>> class Shape:
...     def __dir__(self):
...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
>>> s = Shape()
>>> dir(s)
['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

>>> import struct
>>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace  
['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
>>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module 
['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
 '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
 'unpack', 'unpack_from']
>>> class Shape:
...     def __dir__(self):
...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
>>> s = Shape()
>>> dir(s)
['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

>>> import struct
>>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace  
['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
>>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module 
['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
 '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
 'unpack', 'unpack_from']
>>> class Shape:
...     def __dir__(self):
...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
>>> s = Shape()
>>> dir(s)
['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

>>> import struct
>>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace  
['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
>>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module 
['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
 '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
 'unpack', 'unpack_from']
>>> class Shape:
...     def __dir__(self):
...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
>>> s = Shape()
>>> dir(s)
['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

>>> import struct
>>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace  
['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
>>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module 
['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
 '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
 'unpack', 'unpack_from']
>>> class Shape:
...     def __dir__(self):
...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
>>> s = Shape()
>>> dir(s)
['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

For operands base and exp, if mod is present, mod must also be of integer type and mod must be nonzero. If mod is present and exp is negative, base must be relatively prime to mod. In that case,

>>> import struct
>>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace  
['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
>>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module 
['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
 '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
 'unpack', 'unpack_from']
>>> class Shape:
...     def __dir__(self):
...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
>>> s = Shape()
>>> dir(s)
['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

Here’s an example of computing an inverse for

>>> import struct
>>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace  
['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
>>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module 
['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
 '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
 'unpack', 'unpack_from']
>>> class Shape:
...     def __dir__(self):
...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
>>> s = Shape()
>>> dir(s)
['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

>>> import struct
>>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace  
['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
>>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module 
['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
 '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
 'unpack', 'unpack_from']
>>> class Shape:
...     def __dir__(self):
...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
>>> s = Shape()
>>> dir(s)
['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

Changed in version 3.8: For operands, the three-argument form of

>>> import struct
>>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace  
['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
>>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module 
['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
 '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
 'unpack', 'unpack_from']
>>> class Shape:
...     def __dir__(self):
...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
>>> s = Shape()
>>> dir(s)
['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

Changed in version 3.8: Allow keyword arguments. Formerly, only positional arguments were supported.

Print objects to the text stream file, separated by sep and followed by end. sep, end, file, and flush, if present, must be given as keyword arguments.

All non-keyword arguments are converted to strings like does and written to the stream, separated by sep and followed by end. Both sep and end must be strings; they can also be

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

The file argument must be an object with a

>>> import struct
>>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace  
['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
>>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module 
['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
 '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
 'unpack', 'unpack_from']
>>> class Shape:
...     def __dir__(self):
...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
>>> s = Shape()
>>> dir(s)
['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

>>> import struct
>>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace  
['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
>>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module 
['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
 '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
 'unpack', 'unpack_from']
>>> class Shape:
...     def __dir__(self):
...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
>>> s = Shape()
>>> dir(s)
['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

Whether the output is buffered is usually determined by file, but if the flush keyword argument is true, the stream is forcibly flushed.

Changed in version 3.3: Added the flush keyword argument.

Return a property attribute.

fget is a function for getting an attribute value. fset is a function for setting an attribute value. fdel is a function for deleting an attribute value. And doc creates a docstring for the attribute.

A typical use is to define a managed attribute

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'