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Psychological contract The overall set of expectations held by an individual with respect to what he or she will contribute to the organization and what the organization will provide to the individual
Contributions What the individual provides to the organization
Inducements What the organization provides to the individual
Person-job fit The extent to which the contributions made by the individual match the inducements offered by the organization
Individual differences Personal attributes that vary from one person to another
Personality The relatively permanent set of psychological and behavioral attributes that distinguish one person from another
"Big five" personality traits A popular personality framework based on five key traits
Agreeableness A person's ability to get along with others
Conscientiousness The number of goals on which a person focuses
Negative emotionality Extent to which a person is poised, calm, resilient and secure
Extraversion A person's comfort level with relationships
Openness A person's rigidity of beliefs and range of interests
Locus of control The degree to which an individual believes that behavior has a direct impact on the consequences of that behavior
Self-efficacy An individual's beliefs about her or his capabilities to perform a task
Authoritarianism The extent to which an individual believes that power and status differences are appropriate within hierarchical social systems like organizations
Machiavellianism Behavior directed at gaining power and controlling the behavior of others
Self-esteem The extent to which a person believes that he or she is a worthwhile and deserving individual
Risk propensity The degree to which an individual is willing to take chances and make risky decisions
Attitudes Complexes of beliefs and feelings that people have about specific ideas, situations, or other people
Cognitive dissonance Caused when an individual has conflicting attitudes
Job satisfaction or dissatisfaction An attitude that reflects the extent to which an individual is gratified by or fulfilled in his or her work
Organizational commitment An attitude that reflects an individual's identification with and attachment to the organization itself
Positive affectivity A tendency to be relatively upbeat and optimistic, have an overall sense of well-being, see things in a positive light, and seem to be in a good mood
Negative affectivity A tendency to be generally downbeat and pessimistic, see things in a negative way, and seem to be in a bad mood
Perception The set of processes by which an individual becomes aware of and interprets information about the environment
Selective perception The process of screening out information that we are uncomfortable with or which contradicts our beliefs
Stereotyping The process of categorizing or labelling people on the basis of a single attribute
Attribution The process of observing behavior and attributing causes to it
Stress An individual's response to a strong stimulus, which is called a stressor
General Adaptation Syndrome General cycle of the stress process
Type A Individuals who are extremely competitive, very devoted to work, and have a strong sense of time urgency
Type B Individuals who are less competitive, less devoted to work, and have a weaker sense of time urgency
Burnout A feeling of exhaustion that may develop when someone experiences too much stress for an extended period of time
Creativity The ability of an individual to generate new ideas or to conceive of new perspectives on existing ideas
Workplace behavior A pattern of action by the members of an organization that directly or indirectly influences organizational effectiveness
Performance behaviors The total set of work-related behaviors that the organization expects the individual to display
Absenteeism When an individual does not show up for work
Turnover When people quit their jobs
Organizational citizenship The behavior of individuals that makes a positive overall contribution to the organization
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We take in information through all five of our senses, but our perceptual field (the world around us) includes so many stimuli that it is impossible for our brains to process and make sense of it all.
Consumers are bombarded with messages on television, radio, magazines, the Internet, and even bathroom walls. The average consumer is exposed to about three thousand advertisements per day (Lasn, 1999). Consumers are online, watching television, and checking their phones simultaneously. Some, but not all, information makes it into our brains. Selecting information we see or hear (e.g., Instagram ads or YouTube videos) is called .
Exposure speaks to the vast amount of commercial information – media messages, commercial, and other forms of advertisements – we are constantly subjected to on a daily basis.
In 2017, Forbes.com contributing writer Jon Simpson challenged readers to count how many brands they are exposed to from the moment they awake. From the bed to the shower to the breakfast table, how many brands have you already come in contact with? 10? 20? Then turn on your phone and start scrolling through your Twitter news feed…and now Instagram. Before you leave for work or school, the number of brands you’ve been exposed to likely climbs into the hundreds. Simpson claims that, “[d]igital marketing experts estimate that most Americans are exposed to around 1,000-4,000 ads each day” (Simpson, 2017).
Given this sea of images, sounds, and messages, how can we possibly make sense of any one brand’s message? Consumers will devote a degree of mental processing to only those messages that relate to their needs, wants, preferences, and attitudes. Brands are banking on the fact that with higher degrees of exposure, at some point their message is going to “stick” and capture consumers’ attention at just the right moment.
The of a sensation is defined as the intensity of a stimulus that allows an organism to just barely detect it. The absolute threshold explains why you don’t smell the cologne someone is wearing in a classroom unless they are somewhat close to you.
The (or just noticeable difference, also referred to as “JND”), refers to the change in a stimulus that can just barely be detected. In other words, it is the smallest difference needed in order to differentiate between two stimuli.
The German physiologist Ernst Weber (1795-1878) made an important discovery about the JND — namely, that the ability to detect differences depends not so much on the size of the difference but on the size of the difference in relation to the absolute size of the stimulus. maintains that the JND of a stimulus is a constant proportion of the original intensity of the stimulus.
As an example, if you have a cup of coffee that has only a very little bit of sugar in it (say one teaspoon), adding another teaspoon of sugar will make a big difference in taste. But if you added that same teaspoon to a cup of coffee that already had five teaspoons of sugar in it, then you probably wouldn’t taste the difference as much (in fact, according to Weber’s Law, you would have to add five more teaspoons to make the same difference in taste).
Another interesting application of Weber’s Law is in our everyday shopping behaviour. Our tendency to perceive cost differences between products is dependent not only on the amount of money we will spend or save, but also on the amount of money saved relative to the price of the purchase. For example, if you were about to buy a soda or candy bar in a convenience store, and the price of the items ranged from $1 to $3, you would likely think that the $3 item cost “a lot more” than the $1 item. But now imagine that you were comparing between two music systems, one that cost $397 and one that cost $399. Probably you would think that the cost of the two systems was “about the same,” even though buying the cheaper one would still save you $2.