Great Britain, Prussia, Portugal, with allies
France, Spain, Austria, Russia, Sweden with allies
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The 1763 Treaty of Paris brought about the end of the French and Indian War and the Seven Years’ War, resulting in peace between Great Britain, Spain, and France. The treaty settled several questions regarding territories and colonies in the Americas.
The treaty was signed in Paris on February 10, 1763 by representatives of Great Britain, Spain, and France. In addition, Portugal agreed to the treaty terms but it did not include Prussia or Austria. British victories over both Spain and France made the treaty possible and settled numerous disputes between the various nations.
LouisianaAs part of the 1763 Treaty of Paris, France ceded all French territory east of the Mississippi River to Great Britain. France retained territory west of the river. The one exception to this was the city of New Orleans, which remained in French control. This negated a previous secret agreement between France and Spain in 1762 granting Louisiana to Spain.
CanadaWhile France ceded all French Canadian territories to Britain, specific provisions for French citizens living in Canada were included in the treaty. Under Article IV, French residents were granted unrestricted emigration for 18 months as long as properties were sold to British subjects. France kept fishing rights off the coast of Newfoundland and retained the islands of Miquelon and Saint Pierre.
DunkirkA significant source of strife between France and Great Britain was the fortifications around Dunkirk. Under the 1763 Treaty of Paris, France was forced to adhere prior terms agreed to under the Treaty of Ultrecht signed in 1713 in which France had agreed to significant limits on the Dunkirk fortifications. With this new agreement, Great Britain’s concerns that France could use Dunkirk as a staging ground for an invasion of Great Britain were alleviated.
Territory ExchangeSeveral additional questions of territorial control were also addressed in the 1763 Treaty of Paris. Many of the territories captured by Great Britain, France, or Spain during the preceding years were returned to the original nation. France restored trading posts in Sumatra and Minorca to Great Britain. Spain restored Colonia del Sacramento in South America to Portugal along with the fortress of Almeida. Great Britain returned Manila and Havana to Spain while Spain granted Florida to Great Britain. Great Britain also returned Guadaloupe, Saint Lucia, Goree, Martinique, and Indian trading posts to France. However, France ceded Dominica, Saint Vincent, the Grenadines, Grenada, and Tobago to Great Britain along with the additional grants of Louisiana and Canada.
Additional AgreementsIn addition to the territorial agreements, additional components of the 1763 Treaty of Paris settled various sources of conflict between the nations. Under the agreement, Great Britain pledged to allow its new citizens to practice Catholicism. France acknowledged British clients as rulers of specific Indian states while also committing to not sending soldiers to Bengal. Great Britain agreed to destroy defenses in British Honduras but retained control of a colony dedicated to cutting logwood.
Following the 1763 Treaty of Paris, Great Britain became the acknowledged leader of a global empire. While many territories gained during the wars were returned to the original owner, the gains made by Great Britain were significant enough to mark the beginning of British dominance around the world.
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The Seven Years’ War was a far-reaching conflict between European powers that lasted from 1756 to 1763. France, Austria, Saxony, Sweden, and Russia were aligned on one side, and they fought Prussia, Hanover, and Great Britain on the other. The war also involved overseas colonial struggles between Great Britain and France.
The Seven Years' War resulted from an attempt by the Austrian Habsburgs to win back the province of Silesia, which had been taken from them by Frederick the Great of Prussia. Overseas colonial struggles between Great Britain and France for control of North America and India were also a cause of the war.
The treaties that ended the Seven Years' War were the Treaty of Paris signed on February 10, 1763, between Great Britain, Hanover, France, and Spain, with Portugal expressly understood to be included, and the Treaty of Hubertusburg, signed on February 15, 1763, which was between Austria, Prussia, and Saxony.
Seven Years’ War, (1756–63), the last major conflict before the French Revolution to involve all the great powers of Europe. Generally, France, Austria, Saxony, Sweden, and Russia were aligned on one side against Prussia, Hanover, and Great Britain on the other. The war arose out of the attempt of the Austrian Habsburgs to win back the rich province of Silesia, which had been wrested from them by Frederick II (the Great) of Prussia during the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–48). But the Seven Years’ War also involved overseas colonial struggles between Great Britain and France, the main points of contention between those two traditional rivals being the struggle for control of North America (the French and Indian War; 1754–63) and India. With that in mind, the Seven Years’ War can also be seen as the European phase of a worldwide nine years’ war fought between France and Great Britain. Britain’s alliance with Prussia was undertaken partly in order to protect electoral Hanover, the British ruling dynasty’s Continental possession, from the threat of a French takeover.
French and Indian War
The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), which concluded the War of the Austrian Succession, left wide grounds for discontent among the powers. It did nothing to allay the colonial rivalry between Great Britain and France, and it virtually guaranteed a subsequent conflict between Austria and Prussia by confirming the conquest of Silesia by Frederick the Great. The aggrandizement of Prussia was seen by Russia as a challenge to its designs on Poland and the Baltic, but it had no voice in the negotiations. Under the Treaty of St. Petersburg of December 9, 1747, Russia had supplied mercenary troops to the British for use against the French in the last stage of the war, and the French, in reprisal, had vetoed any representation of Russia at the peace congress.
Silesian Wars (1740–63)
The War of the Austrian Succession had seen the belligerents aligned on a time-honoured basis. France’s traditional enemies, Great Britain and Austria, had coalesced just as they had done against Louis XIV. Prussia, the leading anti-Austrian state in Germany, had been supported by France. Neither group, however, found much reason to be satisfied with its partnership: British subsidies to Austria had produced nothing of much help to the British, while the British military effort had not saved Silesia for Austria. Prussia, having secured Silesia, had come to terms with Austria in disregard of French interests. Even so, France had concluded a defensive alliance with Prussia in 1747, and the maintenance of the Anglo-Austrian alignment after 1748 was deemed essential by the duke of Newcastle, British secretary of state in the ministry of his brother Henry Pelham. The collapse of that system and the aligning of France with Austria and of Great Britain with Prussia constituted what is known as the “diplomatic revolution” or the “reversal of alliances.”
George II
The Hanoverian king George II of Great Britain was passionately devoted to his family’s Continental holdings, but his commitments in Germany were counterbalanced by the demands of the British colonies overseas. If war against France for colonial expansion was to be resumed, then Hanover had to be secured against Franco-Prussian attack. France was very much interested in colonial expansion and was willing to exploit the vulnerability of Hanover in war against Great Britain, but it had no desire to divert forces to central Europe for Prussia’s sake. French policy was, moreover, complicated by the existence of le Secret du roi—a system of private diplomacy conducted by King Louis XV. Unbeknownst to his foreign minister, Louis had established a network of agents throughout Europe with the goal of pursuing personal political objectives that were often at odds with France’s publicly stated policies. Louis’s goals for le Secret du roi included an attempt to win the Polish crown for his kinsman Louis François de Bourbon, prince de Conti, and the maintenance of Poland, Sweden, and Turkey as French client states in opposition to Russian and Austrian interests.
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On June 2, 1746, Austria and Russia concluded a defensive alliance that covered their own territory and Poland against attack by Prussia or Turkey. They also agreed to a secret clause that promised the restoration of Silesia and the countship of Glatz (now Kłodzko, Poland) to Austria in the event of hostilities with Prussia. Their real desire, however, was to destroy Frederick’s power altogether, reducing his sway to his electorate of Brandenburg and giving East Prussia to Poland, an exchange that would be accompanied by the cession of the Polish duchy of Courland to Russia. Aleksey Petrovich, Graf (count) Bestuzhev-Ryumin, grand chancellor of Russia under the empress Elizabeth, was hostile to both France and Prussia, but he could not persuade Austrian statesman Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz to commit to offensive designs against Prussia so long as Prussia was able to rely on French support.
Frederick II
Frederick the Great saw Saxony and Polish West Prussia as potential fields for expansion but could not expect French support if he started an aggressive war for them. If he joined the French against the British in the hope of annexing Hanover, he might fall victim to an Austro-Russian attack. The hereditary elector of Saxony, Frederick Augustus II, was also elective king of Poland as Augustus III, but the two territories were physically separated by Brandenburg and Silesia. Neither state could pose as a great power. Saxony was merely a buffer between Prussia and Austrian Bohemia, whereas Poland, despite its union with the ancient lands of Lithuania, was prey to pro-French and pro-Russian factions. A Prussian scheme for compensating Frederick Augustus with Bohemia in exchange for Saxony obviously presupposed further spoliation of Austria.
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