A nurse is caring for a client who is at 37 weeks of gestation and is experiencing abruptio

Bleeding may occur at various times in pregnancy. Although bleeding is alarming, it may or may not be a serious complication. The time of bleeding in the pregnancy, the amount, and whether or not there is pain may vary depending on the cause.

  • Miscarriage (pregnancy loss)

  • Ectopic pregnancy (pregnancy in the fallopian tube)

  • Gestational trophoblastic disease (a rare condition that may be cancerous in which a grape-like mass of fetal and placental tissues develops)

  • Implantation of the placenta in the uterus

  • Infection

  • Bleeding between the uterine wall and placental membrane (subchorionic hemorrhage or hematoma)

  • Normal changes in the cells of the cervix due to pregnancy

  • Placenta previa (placenta is near or covers the cervical opening)

  • Placental abruption (placenta detaches prematurely from the uterus)

  • Unknown cause

Placenta previa is a condition in which the placenta is attached close to or covering the cervix (opening of the uterus). Placenta previa occurs in about one in every 200 live births. There are three types of placenta previa:

  • Total placenta previa. The placenta completely covers the cervix.

A nurse is caring for a client who is at 37 weeks of gestation and is experiencing abruptio

  • Partial placenta previa. The placenta is partially over the cervix.

A nurse is caring for a client who is at 37 weeks of gestation and is experiencing abruptio

  • Marginal placenta previa. The placenta is near the edge of the cervix.

A nurse is caring for a client who is at 37 weeks of gestation and is experiencing abruptio

The cause of placenta previa is unknown, but it is associated with certain conditions including the following:

  • Women who have scarring of the uterine wall from previous pregnancies

  • Women who have fibroids or other abnormalities of the uterus

  • Women who have had previous uterine surgeries or cesarean deliveries

  • Older mothers (over age 35)

  • African-American or other minority race mothers

  • Cigarette smoking

  • Placenta previa in a previous pregnancy

  • Being pregnant with a male fetus

The greatest risk of placenta previa is bleeding (or hemorrhage). Bleeding often occurs as the lower part of the uterus thins during the third trimester of pregnancy in preparation for labor. This causes the area of the placenta over the cervix to bleed. The more of the placenta that covers the cervical os (the opening of the cervix), the greater the risk for bleeding. Other risks include the following:

  • Abnormal implantation of the placenta

  • Slowed fetal growth

  • Preterm birth

  • Birth defects

The most common symptom of placenta previa is vaginal bleeding that is bright red and not associated with abdominal tenderness or pain, especially in the third trimester of pregnancy. However, each woman may exhibit different symptoms of the condition or symptoms may resemble other conditions or medical problems. Always consult your doctor for a diagnosis.

In addition to a complete medical history and physical examination, an ultrasound (a test using sound waves to create a picture of internal structures) may be used to diagnose placenta previa. An ultrasound can show the location of the placenta and how much is covering the cervix. A vaginal ultrasound may be more accurate in diagnosis.

Although ultrasound may show a low-lying placenta in early pregnancy, only a few women will develop true placenta previa. It is common for the placenta to move upwards and away from the cervix as the uterus grows, called placental migration.

Specific treatment for placenta previa will be determined by your doctor based on:

  • Your pregnancy, overall health, and medical history

  • Extent of the condition

  • Your tolerance for specific medications, procedures, or therapies

  • Expectations for the course of the condition

  • Your opinion or preference

There is no treatment to change the position of the placenta. Once placenta previa is diagnosed, additional ultrasound examinations are often performed to track its location. Bed rest or hospital admission may be necessary. It may be necessary to deliver the baby, depending on the amount of bleeding, the gestational age, and condition of the fetus. Cesarean delivery is necessary for most cases of placenta previa. Severe blood loss may require a blood transfusion.

Placental abruption is the premature separation of a placenta from its implantation in the uterus. Within the placenta are many blood vessels that allow the transfer of nutrients to the fetus from the mother. If the placenta begins to detach during pregnancy, there is bleeding from these vessels. The larger the area that detaches, the greater the amount of bleeding. Placental abruption occurs about once in every 100 births. It is also called abruptio placenta.

Other than direct trauma to the uterus such as in a motor vehicle accident, the cause of placental abruption is unknown. It is, however, associated with certain conditions, including the following:

  • Previous pregnancy with placental abruption

  • Hypertension (high blood pressure)

  • Cigarette smoking

  • Multiple pregnancy

  • Sickle cell anemia

Placental abruption is dangerous because of the risk of uncontrolled bleeding (hemorrhage). Although severe placental abruption is rare, other complications may include the following:

  • Hemorrhage and shock

  • Disseminated vascular coagulation (DIC)--a serious blood clotting complication.

  • Poor blood flow and damage to kidneys or brain

  • Stillbirth

  • Hemorrhage during labor

The most common symptom of placental abruption is dark red vaginal bleeding with pain during the third trimester of pregnancy. It also can occur during labor. However, each woman may experience symptoms differently. Some women may not have vaginal bleeding that is detectable, but there may be bleeding inside the uterus. Symptoms may include:

  • Vaginal bleeding

  • Abdominal pain

  • Uterine contractions that do not relax

  • Blood in amniotic fluid

  • Nausea

  • Thirst

  • Faint feeling

  • Decreased fetal movements

The symptoms of placental abruption may resemble other medical conditions. Always consult your doctor for a diagnosis.

The diagnosis of placental abruption is usually made by the symptoms, and the amount of bleeding and pain. Ultrasound may also be used to show the location of the bleeding and to check the fetus. There are three grades of placental abruption, including the following:

A nurse is caring for a client who is at 37 weeks of gestation and is experiencing abruptio

A nurse is caring for a client who is at 37 weeks of gestation and is experiencing abruptio

  • Grade 1. Small amount of vaginal bleeding and some uterine contractions, no signs of fetal distress or low blood pressure in the mother.

  • Grade 2. Mild to moderate amount of bleeding, uterine contractions, the fetal heart rate may shows signs of distress.

  • Grade 3. Moderate to severe bleeding or concealed (hidden) bleeding, uterine contractions that do not relax (called tetany), abdominal pain, low blood pressure, fetal death.

Sometimes placental abruption is not diagnosed until after delivery, when an area of clotted blood is found behind the placenta.

Specific treatment for placental abruption will be determined by your doctor based on:

  • Your pregnancy, overall health, and medical history

  • Extent of the disease

  • Tolerance for specific medications, procedures, or therapies

  • Expectations for the course of the disease

  • Your opinion or preference

There is no treatment to stop placental abruption or reattach the placenta. Once placental abruption is diagnosed, a woman's care depends on the amount of bleeding, the gestational age, and condition of the fetus. Vaginal delivery may be possible if the fetus is tolerating labor. If placental abruption is affecting the fetus, then cesarean delivery may be necessary. Severe blood loss may require a blood transfusion.

Key messages

  • Antepartum haemorrhage (APH) is bleeding from the genital tract after 20 weeks gestation and before labour.
  • APH occurs in 2-5 per cent of pregnancies and half are of unknown cause. 
  • Blood loss is often underestimated, so it is vital to observe for maternal shock and fetal compromise.
  • APH is associated with increased risks of fetal growth restriction (FGR) and preterm labour, and adverse perinatal outcomes.
  • Prevention and treatment of anaemia in all pregnant women helps minimise maternal morbidity associated with APH.

Preparation

All clinicians should:

  • know where to find all equipment for APH management in their service
  • know their local escalation procedures
  • understand which blood products are available at their service and how to access them
  • know how to activate their local massive transfusion protocol (MTP)
  • attend multidisciplinary obstetric emergency training annually (for example, PROMPT, MSEP).

Management

  • APH assessment and management flowchart
  • Stabilise the woman before assessing fetal condition
  • Understand your health service capability:
    • Victorian Maternity & Newborn Capability Framework
  • If required, aim for in-utero transfer if safe to do so:
    • within Victoria, seek assistance from PIPER: 1300 137 650.
  • Weigh blood loss
  • Document ongoing blood loss
  • Document history of blood loss in this pregnancy
  • Consider possible causes of APH:
    • placenta praevia
    • placental abruption
    • show
    • post-coital bleed
    • trauma
    • cervical abnormalities
    • infection
    • vasa praevia.
  • Vital signs - heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, O2 saturation, temperature
  • Document a running total of blood loss
  • Gentle abdominal palpation
  • Assess pain, rigidity, fetal presentation, size and movement
  • Avoid vaginal examination until placenta praevia is excluded.
  • Cardiotocograph (CTG) is indicated from 26 weeks
  • CTG should be continued if there is:
    • ongoing bleeding
    • abdominal pain
    • uterine activity.
  • Document obstetric, medical, surgical and social history.
  • Observe and document:
    • blood loss
    • cervical dilatation and length
    • membranes
    • presenting part.
  • Investigate for:
    • placental position and condition
    • fetal growth and wellbeing
    • cervical length.
  • Request:
    • full blood count (FBC)
    • group and hold, for minor APH (<50 ml)
    • group and cross match, for APH >50 ml and/or clinical shock
  • Kleihauer, if:
    • Rhesus negative
    • abdominal trauma
    • abnormal CTG
  • For blood loss >50 ml:
    • liver function tests
    • renal function tests
    • coagulation studies, including fibrinogen.
  • Summon help - consider MET Call, Code Blue or Code Pink
  • Resuscitate and assess simultaneously
  • IV access x 2 16 g
  • Fluid replacement
  • Oxygen 8 L/min
  • In-dwelling catheter (IDC).
  • Consult with obstetric and paediatric clinicians
  • Prepare resuscitation equipment appropriate for gestation:
    • consider a rapid infusion of 20 ml/kg of Rh O-negative uncross-matched blood, for infants symptomatic of hypovolaemia secondary to blood loss 
  • Notify SCN/NICU
  • Counsel the woman and family about what to expect in terms of baby's condition and care.
  • Previous CS
  • Placenta praevia
  • Vasa praevia.
  • Breech and <32 weeks
  • Multiple pregnancy and <26 weeks
  • Maternal condition necessitating caesarean section
  • Administration of corticosteroids should not delay delivery
  • If ≤ 34 weeks:
    • Betamethasone 11.4 mg IM
      then
    • Betamethasone 11.4 mg IM in 24 hours
    • Consider second dose at 12 hours if birth likely within 24 hours
    • If risk of preterm birth remains ongoing in seven days, repeat dose
  • Between 34+1 and 36+6 weeks, consider cortiscosteroids if the woman is having a pre-labour CS.
  • Contraindicated if woman is actively bleeding.
  • Contraindicated if woman is actively bleeding
  • Indicated at <30 weeks for neuroprotection, if delivery is imminent
  • Regimen:
    • loading dose MgSO4 4 g IV bolus over 20 minutes
    • maintenance dose MgSO4 1 g/hr IV for 24 hours or until birth - whichever is first.
  • Be familiar with blood products available at your service (Appendix 1)
  • Consider cell salvage
  • If a woman does not consent to blood transfusion, transfer her to a service with cell salvage
  • Indications for blood transfusion* (from the National Blood Authority Guidelines - Obstetrics and Maternity module):
    • Hb concentration >90 g/L, Red blood cell (RBC) transfusion is usually inappropriate.
    • Hb concentration of 70-90 g/L, RBC transfusion not associated with reduced mortality. Decision to transfuse (with a single unit followed by reassessment) should be based on the need to relieve clinical signs and symptoms of anaemia, availability of other therapies for the treatment of anaemia, expected timeframe to giving birth, and individual risk factors for haemorrhage.
    • Hb concentration <70 g/L, RBC transfusion may be associated with reduced mortality and may be appropriate. However, transfusion may not be required in well-compensated patients or where other specific therapy is available.

*Direct evidence of the efficacy of RBC transfusion for treatment of anaemia is not available in maternity patients. This advice draws on evidence from other patient groups and CRG consensus.

Inpatient management

  • Prolonged inpatient care can be associated with an increased risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE):
    • encourage mobility
    • use TED stockings
    • ensure adequate hydration.
  • Prophylactic anticoagulation in women at high risk of bleeding can be hazardous and the decision to use it should be taken on an individual basis.
  • Weekly FBE
  • Treat anaemia:
  • Administer Anti-D if indicated
  • Plan for timing of birth.

Observation

  • Frequency of observation depends on:
    • maternal condition
    • ongoing bleeding
    • other clinical findings
  • Fetal monitoring daily and as clinically indicated
  • Review by the paediatric/neonatal and anaesthetic teams
  • Ultrasound (US) as clinically indicated.

Discharge

  • Women with an APH have an increased risk of adverse perinatal outcomes: (Table 2)
    • Counsel the woman about the risk of adverse outcomes.
    • Refer the woman for serial US for growth (timing will depend on gestation).
    • Plan for active management of third stage
  • Discharge criteria:
    • Spotting = if placenta clear of os and no further bleeding
    • Minor APH = 24 hours after last observation of fresh blood loss
    • Major or massive APH = as per obstetric team.

Outpatient management

  • Home-based care requires:
    • the woman’s consent
    • the woman to be aware of signs and symptoms which mean she should attend hospital
    • a plan and method to attend hospital if needed.

Timing of birth

  • Planning for birth should be tailored to the individual patient, based on:
    • gestation
    • ultrasound findings
    • history of bleeding
    • medical comorbidities
    • surgeon availability
    • patient preferences
  • Patient counselling and consent form should include:
    • increased risk of post-partum haemorrhage (PPH)
    • risks associated with caesarean section
    • specific risks of placenta praevia in terms of massive obstetric haemorrhage
    • potential need for blood transfusion
    • risk of hysterectomy.
  • A woman with a placental edge less than 2 cm from the internal os in the third trimester is likely to need delivery by caesarean section (after 34 weeks).
  • Elective delivery by caesarean section in asymptomatic women is not recommended before 38 weeks of gestation.
  • Placenta praevia without previous caesarean section carries a risk of massive obstetric haemorrhage and hysterectomy and should be carried out in a unit with a blood bank and facilities for high dependency care.
  • Placenta accreta - maternal and neonatal outcome is optimised in stable patients with a planned delivery at 34–36 weeks gestation. The gestation for elective delivery should balance the neonatal risks of prematurity against the maternal risks of emergent delivery.
  • At <30 weeks gestation, consider magnesium sulphate for neuroprotection (see - Preterm birth).
  • Significant APH is an obstetric emergency:
    • Any woman going to theatre with suspected placenta praevia/accreta should be attended by a consultant obstetrician and anaesthetist.
    • If delivery is unexpected, alert out-of-hours consultant staff to attend as soon as possible.

Management of specific conditions

Placenta praevia

  • Refer the woman for follow-up imaging if a low-lying placenta is identified at the 20/40 US.
  • Have a high index of suspicion for placenta accreta if placenta praevia is diagnosed in a woman with a history of caesarean section.
  • Counsel the woman about the risks of preterm birth and obstetric haemorrhage.
  • The woman with placenta praevia who is admitted with an APH not requiring immediate delivery should remain in hospital until 24 hours after bleeding has ceased.
  • Recurrent APH in the third trimester may be an indicator for inpatient management.

Placenta accreta

  • All diagnoses of placenta accreta should be flagged with the appropriate Level 6 service, as future potential transfers.
  • Morbidly adherent placentation may be suspected when placenta praevia is diagnosed in a woman with a history of caesarean section or other uterine surgery.
  • Diagnosis is by COGU US and occasionally confirmed by MRI.
  • Ideally, placenta accreta will be diagnosed before 20–24 weeks gestation.
  • Care planning and management must be undertaken by a multidisciplinary team, led by a senior registrar or consultant obstetrician.
  • The woman with diagnosed placenta accreta must have a plan and method to attend hospital in the event of PV bleeding.
  • If a woman presents with bleeding and a diagnosis of placenta accreta, organise transfer to a Level 6 service for ongoing care, if/when her condition is stable.

Vasa praevia

  • Vasa praevia can be accurately diagnosed with colour Doppler US.
  • See RANZCOG’s statement on Vasa praevia for more information.
  • Bleeding in the context of known vasa praevia is an indication for a RANZCOG Category 1 caesarean section.
  • A diagnosis of vasa praevia at term is an indication for caesarean birth:
    • RANZCOG recommends considering delivery by 35 weeks.
  • If vasa praevia is diagnosed in the third trimester, antenatal admission to a unit with appropriate neonatal facilities is recommended.
  • If vasa praevia is diagnosed in the second trimester, repeat imaging in the third trimester.

More information

All maternity services should have processes in place for:

  • auditing clinical practice and outcomes
  • providing feedback to clinicians on audit results
  • addressing risks, if identified
  • implementing change, if indicated.

Auditable standards:

  • adherence to standard of care for assessment and management.

For further information or assistance with auditing, please contact us on .

Appendix

Service Level

Blood product availability

1

No onsite or on-call blood or transfusion service

2

Ability to administer blood within 1 hour

3

Blood and volume expanders on site

Established pathways to obtain complex blood products

4

Blood and volume expanders on site

Established pathways to obtain complex blood products

5

Full range of blood and blood products available 24 hours a day

6

Full range of blood and blood products available 24 hours a day

Spotting

Staining, streaking or blood spotting noted on underwear or sanitary protection

Minor haemorrhage

Blood loss <50 ml

Major haemorrhage

Blood loss 50–1000 ml with no signs of clinical shock

Massive haemorrhage

Blood loss >1000 ml and/or clinical shock

Placenta praevia

Placenta is inserted wholly or partially in the lower uterine segment

Grade 1: (minor) the placenta is mainly in the upper part of the uterus, but some extends to the lower part

Grade 2: (marginal) the placenta reaches the cervix, but doesn't cover it

Grade 3: (major) the placenta partially covers the cervix

Grade 4: (major) the placenta completely covers the cervix

Placental abruption

Separation of the placenta from the uterine wall

Abnormal placentation

Placenta accreta – abnormal adherence of the placental chorion to the myometrium

Placenta increta – chorionic invasion of the myometrium

Placenta percreta – chorionic invasion of the myometrium and serosa

Abnormal placental shape

Bilobed/bipartite – the placenta is separated into two lobes of similar size

Succenturiate lobe/s – one or more accessory lobes, separate from the main placental disc, connected by vessels running through the membranes

Vasa praevia

Fetal vessels coursing through the membranes over the internal cervical os and below the fetal presenting part, unprotected by placental tissue or the umbilical cord.

  • Type 1: Secondary to a velamentous cord insertion in a single or bilobed placenta 

  • Type 2: Arises from fetal vessels running between lobes of a placenta with one or more accessory lobes 


Unclassified, painless bleeding

Thought to be due to marginal haemorrhage or circumvallate placenta.

Can be associated with perinatal morbidity and mortality in the context of preterm birth.

Version history

First published: December 2018

Last web update: December 2018

Review by: December 2020

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